GIFT  OF 


HARVESTING   CORN 


Farm  Crops 

A  Practical  Treatise  on  the  Growing  of  American  Field 
Crops :  Containing  Brief  and  Popular  Advice  on  the  Seed- 
ing, Cultivating,  Handling  and  Marketing  of  Farm  Crops, 
and  on  the  Management  of  Lands  for  the  Largest  Returns 


By 

CHARLES  WILLIAM  BURKETT 

Editor  of  American  Agriculturist 


ILLUSTRATED 


NEW    YORK 
ORANGE   JUDD   COMPANY 

1910 


GIFT 


Copyright,  1910 

ORANGE  JUDD  COMPANY 

NEW  YORK 


IC.  DEPti 


*:/:•••   »*»*to«ro  IN  u.  s.  A 


iv 


PREFACE 

IN  the  aggregate  the  farmer's  annual  wealth  is 
nearly  $9,000,000,000.  Last  year  it  was  $869,- 
000,000  above  that  of  1908,  $1,159,000,000  above 
that  of  1907,  $1,023,000,000  above  that  of  1906, 
$1,469,000,000  above  that  of  1905,  $1,619,000,000 
above  that  of  1904,  $1,861,000,000  above  that  of 
1903  and  $3,061,000,000  above  the  census  year  of 
1899.  In  a  decade  the  value  of  farm  products  has 
doubled.  Too  frequently  national  prosperity  is 
gauged  by  the  activities  of  the  cities.  Extend  Broad- 
way across  the  continent  and  broaden  it  until  the 
Canadian  border  is  touched  and  carry  the  same  con- 
struction to  the  Gulf  and  in  six  months  if  agriculture 
be  abandoned,  as  it  necessarily  would  be,  the  build- 
ings would  be  tenantless,  the  banks  would  be  doing 
no  business  and  just  about  all  the  people  either 
would  be  dead  or  starving.  Much  of  our  national 
greatness,  therefore,  is  dependent  upon  the  kind  of 
crops  raised  and  upon  their  average  acre  yield. 

This  book  is  concerned  with  the  field  crops  raised 
on  American  farms.  It  contains  the  best  ideas 
gathered  from  various  authorities  and  the  experi- 
ence of  many  practical  men  in  all  lines  of  crop  pro- 
duction. The  illustrations  that  accompany  the  text 
have  been  selected  for  their  instructional  value.  All 
of  the  drawings  have  been  made  by  Mr.  B.  F. 
Williamson,  to  whom  grateful  appreciation  is  ex- 
pressed. 

C.  W.  BURKETT. 

New  York,  July,  1910. 

445.Q6.2 


Table  of  Contents 

Page 

INTRODUCTION 
Growing  Crops  Our  Greatest  Business  .          .         I 

CHAPTER  I 
Good  Soils  Back  of  Good  Crops     ...         4 

CHAPTER  II 
How  Rotations  Help  Out  16 

CHAPTER  III 
Getting  the  Seed  Bed  Right  ....       27 

CHAPTER  IV 
Crop  Yields  and  Proper  Culture   ...       35 

CHAPTER  V 
What  Crops  for  Feeding       ....       43 

CHAPTER  VI 
What  Forage  Crops  Are  Best       ...       54 

CHAPTER  VII 
Growing  Crops  for  Succulence      ...       63 

CHAPTER  VIII 
The  Silo,  Silage  and  Soiling  Crops         .          .       75 

CHAPTER  IX 
Every  Fa  inci  a  Plant  Breeder       ...       84 

CHAPTER  X 
Farm   Crops  ......       95 

vii 


List  of  Illustrations 


Page 

How  Good  Drainage  Works  5 

How  Bad  Drainage  Handicaps       .          .          .  7 

Increasing  Potato  Yields       .          .          .          .  10 

Fertilizing  the  Cowpea           ....  13 

Meadow  Fescue  and  Brome  Grass           .          .  18 

Blue  Grass 20 

Meadow  Foxtail 22 

Peg-Tooth    Harrow        .          .          .          .          .31 

Header  and  Thresher    .....  33 

Wheat   Harvester           .....  36 

Corn   Cultivator     ......  40 

Two-Row  Corn  Cultivator     ....  41 

Beggar  Weed        ......  44 

Corn  Kernels         ......  47 

A  Soil  in  Need  of  Nitrogen  .          .         .         •  55 

Orchard  Grass  in  Bloom        ....  66 

Yellow  Globe  Mangel   .....  70 

A  Good  Silo 76 

Improving  Cotton 85 

Six  Ears  to  the  Stalk     .         .         .         .         .86 

Corn  Smut    .......  87 

Seed  Corn  Room  ......  90 

Improvement  of  Corn  by  Selection         .          .  91 

Effect  of  Inbreeding  of  Corn           ...  94 

Alsike  Clover         ......  103 

ix 


X  LIST   OF   ILLUSTRATIONS 

Page 

Beggar    Weed 108 

A  Field  of  Broom  Corn          .         .         .         .112 

Carrot 117 

Crimson  Clover     ......  121 

Shocking  Corn       ......  124 

Corn   Cultivator     ......  125 

Shocking  Corn       ......  130 

Shocking  Corn  by  Machinery         .          .          .  132 

Shocking  Corn       ......  136 

Upland  Cotton       ......  137 

Cotton  Boll 138 

Cotton   Boll            ......  142 

Cowpea   Rack        .         .         .         .         .         .  145 

Cowpea  Shock       ......  146 

Durum  Wheat 148 

Hop  Culture 154 

Kentucky  Blue  Grass   .....  161 

The  Sugar  Mangel         .         .         .         ...  164 

Meadow  Foxtail    ......  166 

Orchard  Grass       ......  179 

The  Potato  Underground       .          .          .          .185 

Potato  Tray  .          .         .         .         .         .187 

Rape  Plant 195 

Common  Red  Clover     .....  198 

Red  Top .203 

Threshing  Rice 206 

Sheep's  Fescue 215 

The  Soy  Bean 219 

Sugar  Beet 225 


LIST   OF   ILLUSTRATIONS  XI 

Page 
Sugar  Cane;    Laying  the  Cane     .          .          .     231 

Taller  Fescue 236 

Tall  Oat  Grass 237 

Tobacco 243 

Turnip  .......     247 

Velvet  Bean 249 

Velvet   Grass .251 

Hairy  Vetch 252 

Wheat  Production  in  United  States        .          .     254 
Wheat  Header 256 


INTRODUCTION 

Growing  Crops  Our  Greatest  Business 

Compared  with  Europe  and  Asia  the  United 
States  is  a  young  nation  and  our  agricultural  oper- 
ations still  in  their  infancy.  While  development 
has  been  rapid  and  on  a  broad  scale,  it  has  gone 
on  roughly  without  regard  to  permanency;  crops 
have  been  raised  without  thought  as  to  the  effect 
upon  the  soil;  great  quantities  of  produce  have 
been  secured  regardless  of  efficiency  or  quality  and 
old  methods  have  been  followed  without  interest  in 
any  change  that  might  mean  a  higher  state  of  land 
culture,  a  greater  acre  yield  of  field,  orchard  and 
garden  crops,  or  a  more  economical  production  of 
animal  products. 

American  agriculture  has  been  of  a  shifting 
nature.  The  early  settlers  introduced  many  de- 
sirable European  plants  to  be  used  in  addition  to 
those  native  here;  they  brought  live  stock  from 
across  the  water  and  these  were  raised  on  every 
individual  farm.  As  a  result,  on  every  farm  the 
entire  needs  of  the  home  were  raised  or  made  in 
the  household.  The  farmer  not  only  raised  the 
raw  materials  but  manufactured  everything  that 
was  needed  for  his  own  use.  In  time  this 
concentrated  effort  gave  way  to  diversification ; 
and  a  division  of  labor  resulted.  The  canal  came, 
soon  to  be  followed  by  the  railroad  and  then  later 
by  every  kind  of  transportation  power.  Agricul- 
tural industries  became  segregated  or  separated  or 
fixed  as  the  nature  of  the  soil  or  climate  or  loca- 
tion demanded. 


2  FARM    CROPS 

Towns  and  cities  sprang  into  existence.  They 
called  for  food  and  for  raw  materials  and  in  ex- 
change gave  finished  products  for  the  home,  tools 
and  machines  for  the  farm,  and  luxuries  for  the 
family.  From  growing  every  sort  of  crop,  making 
his  own  clothing  and  supplying  his  own  needs,  the 
farmer  altered  the  program,  giving  way  to  special- 
ization. He  cultivated  his  fields  and  raised  his 
animals,  and  from  the  surplus,  after  meeting  his 
own  needs,  he  secured  his  additional  supplies  from 
the  manufacturing  centers  of  the  cities  and  towns. 
In  time  sections  became  marked  as  being  peculiarly 
adapted  for  certain  lines  of  crop  production,  and 
these  became  centers  of  supply,  giving  rise  to  ex- 
change, not  only  between  town  and  city,  but  be- 
tween agricultural  localities  also.  For  instance, 
sugar  became  a  fixture  in  one  section,  cotton  in  an- 
other, tobacco  in  another,  corn  shifted  to  the  South 
and  Middle  West,  wheat  to  the  uttermost  limits 
both  north  and  west,  while  live  stock  settled  itself 
where  opportunity  offered  it  the  best  prospects. 

Thus  sheep  departed  from  New  England  into 
Ohio,  then  into  the  far  West  and  Southwest.  Beef 
cattle  sought  the  rich  pasture  lands  in  the  Middle 
and  Western  states.  The  hog  followed  after  corn 
and  established  himself  where  corn,  clover  and 
alfalfa  were  most  at  home.  Dairy  cattle,  mindful 
of  the  worth  and  possibilities  of  settled  commu- 
nities, congregated  around  cities  and  towns,  and, 
undaunted  by  heat,  snow  or  cold,  or  regardless  of 
scant  and  rocky  pasture  or  diminishing  returns  in 
hay  and  forage,  became  fixed  in  New  England  and 
the  older  sections  of  the  country.  At  the  same 
time,  farm  poultry,  wedded  to  woman  and  the 
home,  so  fixed  themselves  through  sentiment  and 


INTRODUCTION  /,    i       i  1  \ J; J  ;  \ ' '£ 

beneficent  use  as  to  become  a  home  necessity  in 
every  section,  state  and  community,  developing  all 
the  time  until  their  annual  worth  in  eggs  and  meat 
was  to  become  nearly  twice  the  annual  gold  out- 
put of  the  entire  world  for  a  single  year. 

American  farms,  together  with  all  improvements 
contained  thereon,  with  crops,  live  stock  and  all 
other  things  included,  possess  a  total  value  of  more 
than  $36,000,000,000.  During  the  last  year  the 
farmers  of  the  United  States  produced  farm  prod- 
ucts having  a  value  of  more  than  $8,000,000,000; 
they  received  more  than  $1,000,000,000  for  the  farm 
products  sent  out  of  the  country.  Since  the  farm 
products  imported  for  the  use  of  the  entire  nation 
amounted  to  but  $600,000,000,  there  remained  in 
favor  of  this  country  a  total  of  more  than  $400,000,- 
ooo  as  a  result  of  the  exchange. 

The  legend  of  Antaeus,  whom  Hercules  could  not 
overthrow  so  long  as  his  opponent  had  his  feet  upon 
the  ground,  is  applicable  to  the  farming  population 
of  the  United  States.  This  vast  body  of  men  has  its 
foundation  upon  the  land ;  among  them  are  found  the 
loftiest  patriotism,  the  sturdiest  character  and  the 
highest  integrity — all  of  which  conduce  to  greater 
growth,  to  larger  development  and  to  more  won- 
derful returns  than  can  possibly  be  indicated  by 
any  production  of  the  past. 


CHAPTER  I 

Good  Soils  Back  of  Good  Crops 

The  soils  of  the  United  States  are  as  diverse  as 
the  people  that  live  on  them.  They  vary  greatly 
in  origin,  in  composition  and  in  productive  power. 
They  are  subject  to  change,  and  respond  to  good 
treatment  or  suffer  from  inattention  or  neglect. 
On  every  side  even  a  casual  observer  sees  soils 
that  once  abounded  in  fertility,  but  are  now  so 
depleted  that  they  barely  pay  the  cost  of  seed  and 
tillage.  Other  soils,  that  inherited  poverty  through 
generations  of  thriftless  ownership,  are  now  known 
for  their  high  productive  power. 

THE  SUPREME  TEST  OF  THE  FARMER 

Ability  to  make  soil  produce  is  the  test  of  good 
farming.  Without  this  ability,  ideal  climate,  favor- 
able situation  and  propitious  seasons  are  of  little 
agricultural  value.  The  good  farmer  makes  every 
kind  of  soil  do  his  will  and  become  fertile.  There 
is  no  soil,  whether  it  be  the  granite  soil  of  New 
England,  the  red  clay  lands  of  the  south,  the  sandy 
soils  of  the  coastal  plains,  the  limestone  lands  of 
the  Middle  West,  the  deep  vegetable  soils  of  the 
prairie  states  or  the  black  lands  of  the  Southwest, 
that  will  not  become  more  productive  in  the  hands 
of  an  intelligent  and  industrious  man. 

If  the  kind  of  soil  is  not  the  paramount  object  of 
consideration  in  trying  to  make  farming  pay,  what 
then  is  the  vital  consideration?  It  is  this:  knowl- 
edge of  the  soil  and  its  management.  We  must 

4 


GOOD   SOILS   BACK   OF  GOOD   CROPS  5 

;o  know  our  soil  and  its  proper  management  that 

re  can  make  it  yield  better  crops;    that  we  can 

make,  not  two,  but  five  blades  of  grass,  or  stalks 

of  corn,  or  grains  of  wheat,  grow  where  one  grew 


HOW    GOOD    DRAINAGE    WORKS 

When  lands  are  drained  with  tiles  the  water  level  is  kept 
far  below  the  root  bed.  The  roots  are  enabled  to  go  down 
deep,  their  pasture  ground  is  enlarged  and  they  are  better 
prepared  to  gather  food.  Well-  drained  lands  are  drier  in  the 
spring  than  undrained  lands,  and  in  the  summer  during  periods 
of  warm,  dry  weather,  the  drained  lands  are  moister  than  the 
undrained  lands. 

before.  These  happy  ends  can  be  achieved  only 
by  the  most  intelligent  cultivation,  and  by  the 
application  of  every  principle  of  improvement  re- 
vealed by  modern  science. 

HELPING  NATURE 

All  this  can  be  done.  The  old  lands  are  not  ex- 
hausted and  dead,  as  commonly  supposed.  Most 
of  them  are  simply  sick  and  tired  and  heartbroken 


O  FARM    CROPS 

1| 

through  abuse,  neglect  and  cruelty.  They  need  a 
wise  and  tender  hand  to  restore  them  to  the  fruc- 
tuous  state  in  which  they  fulfilled  their  mission 
before  the  soil-robber  came. 

The  plow  will  do  much  to  restore  original  fer- 
tility. It  will  assist  nature  to  make  plant  food  avail- 
able for  the  tiny  fibrous  roots.  The  plow  will  let 
air  and  moisture  into  the  soil.  These  two  elements, 
air  and  moisture,  will  be  as  useful  as  they  are  above 
the  soil  where  they  cause  iron  to  rust,  leaves  to 
crumble  into  powder,  forest  trees  to  break  their 
original  elements,  bricks  to  chip  into  pieces,  stones 
to  lose  their  tenacity.  In  the  same  way  they  cause 
all  these  visible  bodies  to  resolve  themselves  into 
original  elements  and  go  to  feed  plants.  In  that 
same  way  do  they  act  in  the  soil  and  render  this 
hitherto  locked-up  plant  food  available  for  the 
plant. 

TILLAGE   MORE   NEEDED   THAN   FER- 
TILIZERS 

This  action  is  readily  understood  if  we  examine 
an  analogous  case.  By  heat  the  air  is  driven  from 
a  can  of  fruit  that  we  wish  to  preserve.  The  fruit, 
rich  in  delicate  flavor  and  appetizing  essences, 
keeps  as  long  as  air,  with  the  destroying  bacteria 
it  carries,  is  excluded  from  the  can.  But  puncture 
the  can  or  remove  the  lid  and  at  once  the  fruit 
begins  to  decay  and  to  become  fine  fertilizer  for  a 
potted  plant.  In  like  manner  much  plant  nutrition 
is  canned  up  in  stiff  or  packed  soils.  But  let  a 
deep  plowshare  go  crashing  into  these  soils  and  at 
once  the  "  canned-tip  condition  "  gives  way  and  the 
available  plant  food  is  freed  as  a  result. 


GOOD   SOILS   BACK   OF   GOOD    CROPS  7 

All  soils,  however,  do  not  need  tillage  any  more 
than  all  animals  need  corn  and  wheat.  The  wide- 
awake farmer  must  ascertain  how  it  is  with  his 
soils.  However,  we  do  know  that  for  the  greater 


HOW   BAD  DRAINAGE   HANDICAPS 

When  lands  are  well  drained  the  roots  are  enabled  to  grow 
down  deep  in  the  soil.  As  a  result  they  are  dry  in  the  spring 
and  moist  in  the  summer.  When  lands  are  undrained  the 
water  level  is  near  the  surface  in  the  spring,  forcing  the  roots 
to  grow  extremely  shallow.  As  the  summer  comes  on  the 
water  level  is  lower,  far  beneath  the  roots.  As  a  result  the 
plants  are  greatly  handicapped  because  they  are  far  above  the 
water  supply. 

part  of  our  older  lands  tillage  is  more  needed  than 
fertilizers.  This  is  especially  true  of  the  hay  and 
meadow  lands,  of  the  clay  lands  of  the  Middle 
states  and  of  the  red  clay  corn  and  cotton  lands  of 
the  South. 


DEEPEN    ROOT    BED    GRADUALLY 

Good,  thorough  tillage  means  more  than  merely 
turning  a  4  or  5-inch  furrow.     It  means  the  gradual 


8  FARM    CROPS 

deepening  of  the  seed  and  root  bed  until  ten  or  a 
dozen  inches  are  turned  to  the  air  for  purification 
and  rejuvenation.  I  say  gradual,  because  some 
soils  would  be  physically  hurt  by  sudden  deep 
plowing.  The  innovation  must,  in  many  cases, 
come  slowly  or  the  soil  may  be  injured  for  years. 
When  there  is  a  probability  of  injury  by  deep  plow- 
ing, let  the  plow  down  gradually.  Go  one,  two  or 
even  three  inches  deeper  at  every  plowing,  until  a 
deep  and  comfortable  seed  bed  is  obtained. 

Chemical  fertilizers  will  aid  in  soil  improvement. 
So  will  some  medicines  aid  people  when  they  are 
sick.  But  let  us  not  depend  on  either  too  much. 
They  are  costly  in  the  first  place,  and  then,  again, 
they  may  do  harm.  Alcohol  may  be  used  as  a 
medicine,  yet  may  lead  to  disease.  Commercial 
fertilizers  add  plant  food  to  the  soil  and  produce 
better  crops  for  a  time,  but  if  depended  on  too 
much,  they  may  do  serious  harm ;  for  under  the 
commercial  fertilizer  system  of  farming  the  humus 
in  the  soil  is  soon  exhausted,  and  these  sorts  of 
fertilizers  do  nothing  to  restore  this  invaluable  in- 
gredient. 

THE  FUNCTION  OF  FERTILIZERS  AND 
LEGUMES 

Commercial  fertilizers  are  to  be  used  as  acces- 
sories to  tillage  and  rotation.  Tillage  improves  the 
physical  condition  of  the  soil.  The  rational  way  to 
use  commercial  fertilizers  is  to  ascertain  the  ele- 
ments needed  in  the  soil  and  then  apply  such  fer- 
tilizers as  are  needed.  Investigations  may  show 
that  of  the  elements  needed  for  plant  growth,  nitro- 
gen, potassium  and  phosphorus,  one  or  all  may  be 


GOOD  SOILS  BACK  OF  GOOD  CROPS  9 

frequently  lacking  in  the  soil.  If  this  be  the  case, 
maximum  crop  production  is  impossible.  It  fol- 
lows that  if  one  or  more  of  these  elements  is  lack- 
ing in  the  soil,  the  deficiency  should  be  met,  and 
the  element  or  elements  needed  should  be  supplied, 
and  it  should  be  the  business  of  the  good  farmer  to 
find  out  what  elements  are  lacking. 

In  this  connection  we  should  not  forget  the  place 
the  legumes  should  take  in  a  rational  system  of 
farming.  The  legumes!  No  magician's  wand  could 
wave  over  any  agricultural  land  and  bless  it  more 
than  do  these  plants.  Alfalfa,  the  clovers — the 
common  red  clover,  crimson,  alsike,  mammoth, 
white  and  bur — the  cowpeas,  the  soja  beans, 
vetches,  etc. — these  are  nature's  soil  improvers  and 
every  one  a  cattle  food  of  the  highest  excellence. 

THE  HIGH  IMPORTANCE  OF  LEGUMES 

These  legumes  add  nitrogen  to  the  soil,  and  since 
nitrogen  is  one  of  the  elements  found  in  commer- 
cial fertilizers,  it  is  a  good  thing  to  know  that  it 
may  be  obtained  in  other  ways  than  through  costly 
fertilizers.  The  connection  between  the  element 
nitrogen  and  the  leguminous  plant  lies  in  the  fact 
that  bacteria  select  the  clovers,  alfalfa,  cowpeas 
and  other  leguminous  roots  as  the  place  for  build- 
ing their  nitrogen  homes. 

You  can  see  these  nitrogenous  homes  if  you  will 
take  the  trouble  to  examine  the  roots  of  any 
leguminous  plant.  Their  presence  is  shown  by  the 
knots  or  wartlike  tubercles  all  over  the  roots  of  the 
plant.  How  do  these  tubercles  gather  nitrogen  and 
feed  plants  upon  it?  In  this  way:  Air,  filled  with 
atmospheric  nitrogen,  circulates  through  the  soil. 


IO  FARM   CROPS 

As  this  air  passes  through  the  soil,  the  bacteria 
composing  the  tubercles  assimilate  the  nitrogen  and 
hold  it  as  available  plant  food  for  the  plant  sup- 
porting their  own  parasitic  bodies,  and  for  crops 
coming  after. 

Great  quantities  of  atmospheric  nitrogen  can  thus 
be  stored  in  the  soil.     Since  nearly  one-half  of  the 


INCREASING   POTATO   YIELDS 

When  mineral  fertilizers  were  applied,  the  potato  crop 
was  greatly  increased.  These  contrasts  are  shown  here.  Acid 
phosphate  and  sulphate  of  potash  were  the  carriers  of  these 
elements. 

total  cost  of  commercial  fertilizers  comes  from  nitro- 
gen, it  follows  that  it  is  rational  farming  to  grow 
alfalfa,  clover,  cowpeas  or  other  leguminous 
crops  so  as  to  diminish  or  entirely  do  away  with 
the  buying  of  costly  nitrogen. 

Potassium  and  phosphorus,  the  other  two  ele- 
ments often  deficient  in  the  soils,  must  be  supplied 
artificially,  since  they  are  minerals  and  cannot  be 
drawn  from  the  air.  As  yet  the  widest  chemical 
or  plant  speculator  has  never  dared  to  hope  to  find 


GOOD  SOILS  BACK  OF  GOOD  CROPS         II 

a  family  of  plants  that  will  be  able  to  make  mineral 
matter  for  other  plants. 

The  nearest  approach  to  any  such  magical  dis- 
covery is  an  open  secret  available  to  all.  No 
trained  genius  is  needed  to  do  the  work;  no  costly 
apparatus  is  demanded.  Simply  a  plow  and  cul- 
tivator to  unlock  the  hidden  treasures  and  to 
change  clay  and  rock  and  compounds  into  avail- 
able plant  food.  Of  course,  if  potassium  and  phos- 
phorus are  deficient  in  the  soil  they  must  be  added 
artificially;  but  they  cost  little  in  comparison  with 
nitrogen. 

This  economical  and  practical  method  of  soil  im- 
provement ought  to  be  steadily  followed.  The 
grain  farmer,  the  cotton  farmer,  the  hay  farmer, 
the  market  gardener — in  fact  every  business  man 
who  has  to  do  with  soil  culture — can  rapidly  im- 
prove his  land  and  keep  it  fertile  by  thus  feeding 
the  soil.  Recently  I  saw  a  number  of  flower  beds 
and  forcing  beds  utilizing  the  cowpeas  as  a  nitro- 
gen crop  for  the  crops  that  are  to  come  on  during 
the  winter  and  fall  months. 

AN  EXPERIMENT  STATION  OF  YOUR  OWN 

Every  soil  worker  should  be  an  experimenter. 
This  is  the  surest  practical  way  to  get  acquainted 
with  the  soils,  and  thus  to  determine  what  plant 
food  is  present  or  absent.  The  following  plan 
presents  a  simple  method  of  ascertaining  which  of 
the  three  elements  of  plant  food  is  needed  in  soils. 
It  can  be  employed  for  every  crop  and  on  any  farm. 

Lay  off  five  plats  of  equal  size  in  any  field. 
Plant  each  to  the  same  crop  and  use  exactly  the 
same  amount  of  seed  to  each.  Prepare  each  plat 


12  FARM  CROPS 

alike,  and  till  with  the  same  tools  and  the  same 
number  of  times,  and  under  the  same  conditions. 
To  the  first  apply  no  fertilizer;  to  the  second  apply 
all  three  elements;  to  the  third  apply  nitrogen 
only;  to  the  fourth  apply  phosphorus  only;  to  the 
fifth  apply  potassium  only.  The  results  will  show 
whatever  chemicals  will  pay  on  the  land,  and  also 
what  elements  are  needed. 

STORING  NITROGEN  WITHOUT   COST 

Of  the  three  elements  most  likely  to  be  removed 
from  the  soil  by  continued  crop  production,  nitrogen 
is  the  most  important,  because,  unlike  phosphorus 
and  potassium,  it  is  not  found  in  appreciable  quan- 
tities in  the  original  rock.  Soil  is  decomposed  rock, 
therefore  the  decomposition  and  disintegration  of 
soils  are  continually  supplying  more  potash  and 
more  phosphoric  acid,  whereas  nitrogen  must  be  sup- 
plied from  some  external  source.  The  atmosphere  is 
composed  very  largely  of  nitrogen,  and  it  has  been 
finally  and  definitely  determined  that  one  family 
of  plants,  the  leguminosae  (clover,  cowpeas),  are 
able,  by  the  aid  of  certain  micro-organisms  in  the 
soil,  to  fix  the  free  nitrogen  of  the  air  and  to  make 
it  available  for  the  use  of  plants. 

The  consideration  of  nitrogen  in  relation  to  soil 
fertility  is  important  also  because  of  the  properties 
of  this  element.  Of  all  the  elements  of  plant 
growth,  nitrogen  is  the  most  fickle,  unstable  and 
unreliable.  It  continually  exhibits  a  tendency  to 
leave  its  chemical  combination.  For  this  reason  it 
is  eminently  fitted  for  the  life  processes  which 
require  continued  changes  in  the  plant.  But  this 


GOOD  SOILS  BACK  OF  GOOD  CROPS        13 

peculiar  tendency  of  nitrogen  makes  it  a  very  dif- 
ficult element  for  the  farmer  to  control.  It  is 
costly. 

For  a  great  many  reasons  we  see  that  any  method 
or  practice  that  will  increase  the  store  of  nitrogen 
in  the  soil  will  greatly  improve  its  fertility.  It  has 
been  determined  that  all  leguminous  plants  have 
the  peculiar  power  of  fixing  the  free  nitrogen  gas  of 
the  air,  which  exists  in  such  great  abundance,  and 


FERTILIZING  THE   COWPEA 

No.  1.     Phosphorus  and  potassium,  but  no  nitrogen. 
No.   2.     Nitrogen,  but  no  phosphorus  and  potassium. 
No.  3.     No  fertilizers  applied. 

changing  it  to  the  form  of  nitrates,  in  which  form 
it  can  be  readily  used  by  all  species  of  plants.  This 
fixation  is  accomplished  by  means  of  a  minute 
micro-organism  in  the  soil,  which  attaches  itself  to 
the  roots  of  these  plants,  causing  the  development 
of  a  small  tubercle  or  swelling,  and  inside  this 
tubercle  or  swelling  the  free  nitrogen  gas  of  the  air 
is  changed  to  nitrates.  So  far  as  we  know,  the 
leguminosae  are  the  only  plants  that  are  able  to 
fix  this  nitrogen  in  quantities  large  enough  to  be  of 


14  FARM    CROPS 

practical  importance  to  the  cultivator  of  the  soil. 
This,  then,  opens  to  us  an  easy  way  of  maintaining 
soil  fertility. 

In  a  soil  of  ordinary  fertility,  by  a  proper  rotation 
of  crops  in  which  clover  or  cowpeas  or  some  other 
leguminous  plant  occurs,  we  are  continually  adding 
to  the  soil  this  valuable  and  costly  element,  nitro- 
gen. Practical  experience  has  taught  us  that  the 
fertility  of  the  soil,  so  far  as  nitrogen  is  concerned, 
may  be  maintained  by  growing  a  sufficient  number 
of  crops  of  clover  or  cowpeas.  How,  then,  is  the 
supply  of  phosphoric  acid  related  to  the  growing  of 
leguminous  plants? 

The  roots  of  the  leguminous  plants  grow  deep 
in  the  soil.  The  roots  of  our  ordinary  grain  crops 
are  surface  feeders,  and  a  soil  may  soon  become 
exhausted,  so  far  as  the  plant  food  available  for 
wheat  or  corn  or  potatoes  is  concerned,  and  may 
still  be  fertile  for  the  growth  of  clover  or  alfalfa 
or  cowpeas  for  the  reason  that  these  legumes  go 
deeper  in  the  soil  and  are  able  to  feed  upon  plant 
food  there  out  of  the  reach  of  many  other  crops. 
When  clover  or  cowpeas  or  alfalfa  is  grown  for 
fertilizing  purposes,  it  also  brings  this  potash  and 
phosphoric  acid  from  the  deeper  layers  of  the  soil 
to  the  surface.  Not  only  is  soil  fertility  brought 
up  from  the  deeper  soil,  but  the  roots  of  plants 
growing  in  contact  with  the  soil  are  continually 
dissolving  the  elements  of  plant  food,  particularly 
potash  and  phosphoric  acid,  and  any  crop  grown 
upon  the  soil  for  the  purpose  of  green  manuring  is 
at  the  same  time  increasing  the  available  plant  food 
in  the  soil  by  dissolving  the  unavailable  compounds. 

These  are  some  of  the  reasons  why  the  growth 
of  the  leguminous  plants  on  the  soil  will  increase 


GOOD  SOILS  BACK  OF  GOOD  CROPS         15 

the  fertility  of  the  land,  and  why  the  growth  of 
leguminous  plants  is  always  a  cheaper  process  of 
fertilizing  than  is  the  application  of  commercial 
fertilizers.  Wherever  clover  and  alfalfa  can  be 
successfully  grown  they  are  unquestionably  the 
best  of  all  leguminous  plants  for  fertilizing  pur- 
poses, but  sometimes  soils  are  too  poor  to  grow 
either  successfully.  On  such  soils  cowpeas  will 
usually  produce  a  large  growth  and  succeed  in  fix- 
ing considerable  quantities  of  nitrogen. 


CHAPTER  II 

How  Rotations  Help  Out 

Crop  rotation  is  not  necessary  for  all  kinds  of 
crops  or  for  all  lines  of  agriculture.  The  truck 
farmer,  and  the  florist,  and  even  others,  may  pre- 
fer single  crops,  even  though  great  quantities  of 
plant  food  must  be  bought.  The  value  of  their 
products  is  such  that  they  can  afford  to  do  this. 
The  hay  farmer  often  prefers  a  single  crop  system 
to  a  change  of  crops,  but  to  keep  his  grass  thrifty 
much  top  dressing  is  necessary.  Pasture  lands, 
too,  where  permanency  is  the  rule,  must  often  wait 
long  years  before  they  can  find  rest  from  change. 
There  are  exceptions,  however.  The  majority  of 
our  people  raise  more  than  a  single  line  of  products. 
Diversification  is  the  rule. 

Nature  suggests  a  rotation  of  crops.  Cut  a  forest 
growth  and  a  change  of  trees  comes  on.  Pasture 
lands  give  way  to  weeds  and  thistles;  blue  grass 
and  Bermuda  drive  out  the  clovers  and  timothy. 
Crops  do  best  when  furnished  a  fresh,  productive 
and  well-tilled  soil.  Just  as  animals  like  variety  in 
food  and  new  pastures,  so  plants  want  new  and  fresh 
feeding  grounds.  We  can  readily  see  how  a  soil 
is  injured  when  a  cultivated  crop  like  corn  or  cotton 
is  grown  on  it  year  after  year.  The  humus  is 
burned  out,  the  soil  hardens  and  deadens,  the 
elements  of  plant  food  especially  needed  for  these 
special  crops  become  scant.  The  soil  loses  its 
productive  power.  These  troubles  could  be  cor- 
rected to  a  great  extent  by  a  change  in  the  crops. 

16 


HOW   ROTATIONS    HELP   OUT  YJ 

The  best  rotation  demands,  not  only  a  change  in 
crops,  but  a  change  in  the  feeding  habits  of  the  crop. 
For  instance,  plants  that  are  shallow  feeders  should 
follow  those  whose  roots  penetrate  the  ground 
deeply.  Corn,  a  shallow  penetrator,  should  follow 
clover  or  alfalfa,  a  deep  grower.  As  the  clover 
roots  strike  deeply,  the  tightly  bound  subsoil  is 
opened,  moisture  goes  down,  air  enters,  and  roots 
decay — all  contributing  to  the  making  and  releasing 
of  plant  food  from  the  compounds  that  hold  it. 

VARYING  NEEDS  OF  PLANTS 

Then,  again,  plants  vary  as  .o  taste.  Some,  like 
potatoes,  fancy  potassium  in  abundance.  Corn 
does  best  when  the  soil  has  an  abundance  of  nitro- 
gen, and  all  grain  crops  must  have  some  potash  and 
phosphorus  to  make  well-filled  heads. 

Crop  rotation  permits  each  of  these  to  find  its 
favorite  dish.  Clover,  for  instance,  gets  its  nitro- 
gen from  the  air,  and  also  draws  up  from  the  sub- 
soil mineral  elements,  and  even  gets  out  of  the  way 
before  a  summer  crop  comes  on.  Suppose,  then,  we 
follow  clover  by  corn.  Nitrogen,  which  has  been 
desired  by  the  corn,  has  been  stored  away  in  the 
soil  by  the  clover.  The  clover  stubble  and  roots 
which  are  plowed  under  furnish  vegetable  matter 
for  further  feeding;  the  soil  is  made  loose  and 
mellow,  and  hence  moisture  is  held  in  greater 
abundance,  so  the  plant  suffers  less  severely  should 
a  dry,  hot  summer  come  on.  After  corn  can  come 
a  crop  like  wheat  or  rye  or  crimson  clover  to  make  a 
cover  crop  to  prevent  the  washing  of  land  or  the 
leaching  of  valuable  plant  food  during  the  winter's 
rain  and  snow.  « 


i8 


FARM    CROPS 


ROTATION    AND    STABILITY 

One  crop  following  another  also  enables  the 
farmer  to  better  employ  his  labor,  his  tools  and  his 
teams;  it  checks  the  spread  and  ravages  of  insects 
and  diseases.  A  single  crop  may  fail  or  be  low  in 
price,  but  of  several  crops 
one  or  more  is  likely  to  be 
in  greater  demand  or  higher 
in  price. 

And  now  we  come  to 
humus.  So  many  of  our 
soils  need  it.  There  is  little 
hope  of  making  them  highly 
productive  until  humus  is 
put  into  them  again.  The 
growing  of  cultivated  crops 
like  corn  or  cotton  deterio- 
rates the  soil,  not  only  be- 

MEADOW    FESCUE    AND       CaUSC     Plant     f°°d      is     taken 

BROME  GRASS  out  or  washed  away,  and  the 

The  meadow  fescue  is   physical    condition     of    the 


thS 


Soil 


left.     Both  are  excellent   the  vegetable  matter  is  used 

for  pasture  and  hay.    They 
are   specially    desirable 


in 


both  are  of  long  duration. 
Both  are  well  known  in 
the  South  and  in  the  semi- 
arid  regions.  The  brome 
grass  is  being  used  to  re- 
place the  common  Buffalo 
grass  of  the  prairies. 


up.  All  kinds  of  stubble  and 
weeds,  clover  roots,  stable 
manure  and  green  manure 
are  needed  to  supply  the  ex- 
hausted vegetable  matter, 
and  bring  the  soils  back  to 
the  productive  condition  that  they  were  in  before 
the  plant  food  and  humus  were  drawn  out. 

WHAT    THE    TILLER    MUST    DO 

If,  then,  land  is  to  be  made  rich  and  kept  rich, 
the  tiller  must  keep  these  things  in  mind:    He  must 


HOW    ROTATIONS    HELP   OUT  IQ 

plow  deep.  This  is  not  true  of  all  soils;  but  old, 
dead,  hard  clay  lands  or  loams  will  be  improved 
greatly  in  texture,  in  water-holding  capacity,  and  in 
feeding  area  for  roots  if  the  plow  be  sent  into  the 
soil.  He  must  cultivate  shallow.  The  cultivator  is 
to  kill  weeds,  to  conserve  moisture,  to  aerate  the 
soil.  If  the  cultivator  be  run  deeper  than  two  or 
three  inches  for  most  crops,  the  roots  are  likely  to 
be  injured;  and  to  injure  the  roots  is  to  lessen  the 
feeding  capacity  of  the  plants. 

THE    GROWING    OF    GRASSES 

Under  usual  conditions  the  farmer  should  grow 
live  stock ;  and  to  do  this  successfully  and  econom- 
ically he  should  have  either  a  part  of  his  farm  in 
permanent  pasture  or  he  should  practice  some  sys- 
tem of  crop  rotation  that  will  enable  him  to  get 
both  pasture  grass  and  mowing.  If  a  permanent 
meadow  or  pasture  is  desired,  it  is  wise  to  sow  dif- 
ferent varieties  of  grass  seeds. 

Nature  mixes  her  seeds  when  she  does  her  plant 
ing,  and  Nature  is  always  a  trustworthy  teacher.  It 
is  a  good  plan  in  sowing  seeds  to  have  in  mind  a 
pasture  that  will  give  green  grass  from  early  spring 
to  latest  fall.  In  those  sections  of  the  country 
where  it  grows  sparingly,  and  where  it  is  easily 
crowded  out,  red  clover  should  be  mixed  with  all 
grasses  sowed,  for  it  leaves  in  the  soil  a  wealth  of 
plant  food  for  the  grasses  coming  after  it  to  feed 
on;  and  we  know,  too,  that  red  clover  grows 
abundantly  in  many  parts  of  our  country.  We 
should  study  the  clover  plant  carefully  so  as  to 
mix  it  with  the  seed. 

Now,  there  is  a  reason  for  mixing  clover  and 
grass.  The  true  grasses,  so  far  as  science  now 


2O 


FARM   CROPS 


shows,  get  all  their  nitrogen  from  the  soil.  Hence, 
they  more  or  less  exhaust  the  soil,  but  the  clovers 
are  legumes,  and  all  legumes  are  able,  by  the  means 
of  the  bacteria  on  their  roots,  to  use  the  free  nitro- 
gen of  the  air.  Hence,  without  cost  to  the  farmer, 

these  clovers  help  the  soil 
to  feed  their  neighbors,  the 
true  grasses.  For  this  rea- 
son some  legumes  should 
always  be  included  in  the 
grass  seed. 

Previous  Preparation.  — 
In  the  sowing  of  grasses  or 
clovers  it  is  not  possible  for 
them  to  do  well  in  a  soil  full 
of  weeds.  It  is  best  to  plant 
the  grass  in  fields  from 
which  cultivated  crops  have 
been  taken.  Grasses  follow 
cowpeas,  wheat  and  oats 
nicely  for  this  reason.  The 
soil  in  which  grass  is  to  be 
should  be  very  fine, 


BLUE   GRASS 
Both    the    Kentucky 


and 


CanadYanv"blue~grasses    are    mellow  and  Compact.    One- 
pictured  here  —  the  Canadian     1     i<-    ..t         c    •* 

at  the  left  and  the  Ken-    half  the  failures  in  grow- 
Spa!  u-  Is^for^   ing    grass    is    due    to    the 

manent     pastures     and    for    fact  that  the   ]and  has  just 

been     plowed,     and     con- 

sequently its  particles  are  loose  and  comparatively 
far  apart.  This  want  of  soil  firmness  is  the  cause 
of  failure.  Let  the  soil  be  free  of  weeds,  but  com- 
pact and  mellow  soil  acts  as  a  blanket  to  keep  the 
moisture  from  wasting  into  air,  and  at  the  same 
time  the  warm  air  is  enabled  to  circulate  in  the  soil. 
If  it  is  necessary  to  plow  the  land  previous  to 


HOW   ROTATIONS   HELP   OUT  21 

seeding,  let  it  be  done  some  months  in  advance. 
Plowed  land  should  then  be  harrowed  several  times 
so  as  to  get  it  soft  and  mellow  and  compact.  Where 
the  seed  bed  has  been  carefully  prepared,  little  work 
will  be  necessary  after  the  seeds  are  sowed. 

SEEDING  AND  FEEDING 

A  light  harrowing  is  sufficient  to  cover  the  broad- 
casted seed.  This  part  of  the  work  should  be  done 
as  soon  as  the  seeds  are  scattered,  for  if  there  be 
moisture  in  the  soil  the  tiny  seeds  will  soon  sprout, 
and  if  the  harrowing  be  done  after  germination  has 
somewhat  advanced,  the  tender  grass  plants  will 
be  injured.  I  have  frequently  gone  over  fields 
where  timothy  or  clover  has  been  scattered  simply 
on  top  of  the  ground,  and  have  seen  germinating 
seeds  so  completely  unprotected  that  as  soon  as 
the  hot  sun  shines  on  them,  they  wither  and  die. 
Had  a  slight  covering  been  given  the  seed,  all  might 
have  been  well. 

It  is  usually  advisable  to  use  commercial  fertil- 
izers on  hay  and  pasture  lands.  Chemicals  can  be 
used  to  good  advantage,  if  not  to  the  best  advan- 
tage, on  the  meadow  crops.  It  is  too  frequently 
the  custom  to  use  all  the  chemicals  on  corn  and 
cotton  and  wheat,  and  let  the  grasses  take  care  of 
themselves.  Were  the  grass  areas  as  well  and 
abundantly  fertilized,  not  only  would  as  much  for- 
age result,  but  the  soil  would  be  put  in  an  admir- 
able condition  for  corn  and  cotton  when  these 
later  come  in  the  rotation. 

Of  course  it  is  to  be  understood  that  there  is  no 
better  fertilizer  for  grass  than  stable  manure,  but 
where  this  is  not  available  the  commercial  fer- 


22 


FARM    CROPS 


tilizers  give  good  results  and  their  use  should  be 

increased. 

Sowing    Grass    Seed.  —  Very    light,    chaffy    seed, 

such  as  those  of  brome  grass,  especially  the  im- 

portant seed  and  awned 
seed,  such  as  those  of 
tall  meadow  oat  grass, 
do  not  feed  through 
seeding  machines  satis- 
factorily, and  should 
therefore,  be  sown  by 
hand.  Hand  sowing 
should  always  be  done 
when  the  air  is  as  still 
as  possible.  It  is  well- 
nigh  impossible  to  dis- 
tribute the  seed  evenly 
when  the  wind  is  blow- 
ing. Unless  the  sower 
is  decidedly  expert,  it  is 
MEADOW  FOXTAIL  best  to  sow  half  of  the 


ance.      Its    chief    value    is    in     the  SCCOnd  Sowing  croSS- 
mixtures    for    permanent    pas-          .  .  . 

tures  and  meadows.     It  is  sel-     W1SC    to    the    first.        IhlS 
dom  grown  alone.     For  nutri- 
tiveness   it  is   about   at   a  par 


___  insures 

with  timothy.      It  fancies  rich        -         i 

soils  and  is  best  known  in  the  Stand. 

Middle     and      New      England  ~c 

StfltPS  <*v5 


a  more  even 
For  such  seed 
will  feed  through 
it,  like  timothy,  red- 
top  (recleaned,)  clovers,  and  others  that  are 
small,  round  and  clean,  the  wheelbarrow  seeder  is 
the  most  satisfactory  implement  yet  invented.  Re- 
cleaned  blue  grass  seed  can  be  sown  with  this 
implement,  but  the  uncleaned  seed  should  be 
sown  by  hand.  Grass  seeders  are  frequently  at- 
tached to  grain  drills.  They  answer  very  well  for 


HOW   ROTATIONS    HELP   OUT  23 

timothy  to  be  sown  with  grain,  but  are  hard  to 
keep  in  order.  There  are  several  cheap  grass  seed- 
ing machines  which  scatter  the  seed  by  mechanical 
means.  They  are  satisfactory  for  seed  that  feed 
through  them  readily,  but  it  requires  some  patience 
to  regulate  them  properly,  and  the  sower  must 
walk  at  a  uniform  rate  or  the  seed  will  not  be  scat- 
tered evenly. 

Seed  of  approximately  the  same  size  and  weight 
may  be  mixed  before  sowing.  Very  large  seed 
should  never  be  mixed  with  small  ones,  or  the  small 
seed  will  feed  out  first.  If  heavy  seed  is  mixed 
with  light  ones,  even  of  the  same  size,  the  heavy 
ones  will  feed  out  first,  unless  the  mixture  is  kept 
well  stirred.  In  sowing  such  mixtures  it  is  well  to 
put  only  a  small  amount  of  seed  in  the  machine  at 
a  time. 

THE  GENTLE  ART  OF  CULTIVATION 

How  deep  shall  we  cultivate  ?  That  question  has 
been  answered  with  quite  a  good  deal  of  certainty. 
At  least  a  half  hundred  carefully  planned  and 
executed  experiments  have,  by  their  results,  an- 
swered in  favor  of  shallow  cultivation.  Since  then 
we  have  heard  much  about  this  new  idea  in  cul- 
tivating the  soil.  But  we  are  in  danger  of  going 
to  the  other  extreme.  Our  fathers  plowed  corn; 
they  cultivated  too  deep.  Some  of  us,  perhaps, 
cultivate  too  shallow;  we  get  into  trouble  with 
weeds ;  and  because  of  our  thin  mulch,  let  the 
water  get  away  from  the  soil. 

In  sections  where  there  is  much  rain,  the  shallow 
extreme  may  do;  but  where  moisture  is  demanded 
— in  the  North,  where  the  ground  is  frozen  for  so 


24  FARM   CROPS 

many  months;  in  the  semi-arid  regions,  where  the 
supply  is  generally  limited — a  deeper  mulch  and  a 
more  effective  mulch  is  to  be  preferred.  Four 
inches,  perhaps,  is  too  much  and  I  inch  is  too 
little.  A  better  depth  is  from  2  to  3  inches ;  better 
for  weed  destruction  and  good  enough  for  mulch 
making. 

Level  Culture  Most  Important. — You  will  find 
farmers  who  still  ridge  their  crops;  they  hill  the 
crop  that  it  may  not  be  blown  over  by  winds,  nor 
pulled  down  by  storms  and  rain.  But  have  you 
ever  noticed  that  nearby  crops,  although  given  level 
culture,  are  no  more  troubled  by  storms  and  wind 
than  the  hilled  and  ridged  crops?  Often  not  so 
much,  is  the  true  situation. 

Hilling  and  ridging  the  crop  is  advisable  for  just 
one  reason:  to  drain  the  land.  With  proper  drain- 
age and  seed  bed  preparation,  there  is  no  occasion 
for  either  of  these  expensive  practices. 

Level  culture,  since  it  exposes  a  smaller  area  to 
sun  and  wind  than  ridge  culture,  actually  protects, 
with  greater  efficiency,  the  water  stored  in  the  soil. 
Bedding  the  land  is  often  advisable  with  some  soils 
(although  it  increases  the  cost  of  planting),  for  the 
reason  that  it  secures  a  small  amount  of  drainage 
and  a  greater  warmth  to  the  soil. 

When  to  Cultivate. — You  must  be  in  sympathy 
with  the  spirit  of  cultivation  if  you  would  get  the 
best  results.  You  must  do  it  at  the  time  when  the 
soil  is  in  the  best  condition  to  profit  by  the  work. 
Just  after  a  rain,  the  word  goes  out.  But  use  your 
judgment  here,  else  you  may  cultivate  too  early 
after  the  rain  and  "  puddle  "  your  land.  When  the 
next  rain  comes,  the  crust  caused  by  the  cultivation 
may  be  so  hard  and  stiff  the  rain  may  slip  away 


HOW  ROTATIONS   HELP  OUT  25 

before  it  can  secure  entrance  through  the  stubborn 
top. 

Here  is  the  better  plan:  Just  wait  until  the  soil 
is  slightly  dried;  enough  so  that  when  it  is  stirred 
it  will  not  settle  and  connect  with  the  capillary 
tubes  below,  thus  defeating  the  very  object  you 
set  about  to  secure.  In  times  when  you  are  de- 
pending upon  cultivation  for  water  preservation  it 
will  be  worth  your  while  to  watch  the  mulch,  to 
see  if  it  is  still  an  effective  blanket  or  if  the  con- 
nection with  the  capillary  tubes  below  is  beginning 
to  take  place.  If  the  latter  be  so,  it  is  high  time 
that  you  repeat  the  cultivating  work. 

Water  Saving  Means  Early  Work. — Water  sav- 
ing falls  into  two  means — the  catching  and  holding 
of  it.  You  first  must  get  water  into  the  soil,  and 
then  you  can  use  it;  provided,  of  course,  you  do 
not  let  it  escape  before  it  is  needed.  Too  many 
tillers  of  the  soil  fail  to  understand  that  the  most 
important  principle  at  stake  in  water  saving  is  to 
till  and  cultivate  in  such  a  manner  that  there  is  free 
access  of  water  into  the  soil.  Then  it  can  be  pre- 
served by  cultivation  and  mulches  throughout  the 
season.  But  failures  in  supplying  water,  although 
effective  culture — mulch  making — is  given  during 
the  growing  season,  are  certain  to  happen  if  no 
water  is  in  the  soil  to  be  conserved.  If  you  would 
have  water  for  plants  for  the  time  when  they  shall 
need  it,  if  you  would  have  soil  water  for  them  for 
later  use,  make  no  mistake  about  first  getting  it  into 
the  soil,  and  the  rest  of  the  work  will  be  easy. 

Points  to  Keep  in  Mind. — i.  Getting  ready  for 
crops — opening  soils  and  catching  water — is  of  more 
importance  than  after  cultivation. 

2.  Get  water  deep  into  the  soil  and  you  will 
have  bigger  stores  of  supply. 


26  FARM   CROPS 

3.  Cultivate  after  every  rain,  not  when  the  soil 
is  really  wet,  but  before  it  becomes  very  dry. 

4.  Make  your  mulch  deep  enough — 3  inches  is 
none  too  deep  in  dry  regions. 

5.  Open  the  soil  early  in  the  spring  with  a  disk 
if  you  have  not  fall  plowed  or  winter  tilled. 

6.  Stir  unused   summer  lands  frequently  so   as 
to  let  water  in  and  to  keep  it  in  for  the  next  crop. 

7.  Lands  frozen  up  for  long  periods,  as  in  the 
New   England   territory,   are   as   needful   of   water 
saving  as  those   of  the   semi-arid  or  dry  farming 
districts. 


CHAPTER  III 

Getting  the  Seed  Bed  Right 

When  weather  conditions  are  favorable  for  some 
time  preceding  and  following  wheat,  grass  and  other 
fall  seedlings,  the  seed  bed  loses  some  of  its  im- 
portance. But  my  experience  is  against  chancing 
the  condition  at  this  stage  of  the  crop.  Once  in  four 
or  five  years,  on  the  average,  you  can  neglect  the 
seed  bed  with  impunity.  But  in  the  other  years,  if 
the  soil  at  seeding  time  is  improperly  prepared,  toll 
will  be  demanded  at  harvest.  Especially  is  this  true 
if  the  rainfall  is  slight;  for,  in  this  case,  the  soil  is 
indifferently  compacted  and  the  seed  lies  unsprouted 
for  days  or  even  weeks. 

To  give  a  concrete  illustration,  let  me  use  a  small 
part  of  a  field  that  was  plowed  and  seeded  a  few 
years  ago  for  experimental  purposes.  The  season 
was  dry  and  had  been  so  for  several  weeks.  But 
the  soil  responded  to  the  plow  with  good  satisfac- 
tion, however.  Some  clods  were  evident,  but  none 
was  of  large  size ;  nor  did  they  resist  the  harrow 
and  drag  to  any  considerable  extent.  Had  a  rain 
come,  the  seed  bed  would  have  served  its  purpose 
and  started  the  crop.  But  no  rain  came  and  seed 
time  did  come. 

After  waiting  as  long  as  custom  would  permit, 
the  field  was  seeded.  Then  days  and  even  weeks 
passed,  and  still  no  rain,  and  no  wheat  either  for 
that  matter ;  for  there  was  not  enough  water  in  the 
seed  bed  area  to  germinate  the  seed.  The  loose, 
opened,  plowed  surface  had  acted,  not  as  a  pump 

27 


28  FARM   CROPS 

to  bring  the  moisture  up  to  the  seed  place,  but  as  a 
blanket  to  keep  it  down. 

WELL-MADE  SEED  BEDS  NOT  DISAP- 
POINTING 

Adjoining  and  nearby  areas  that  had  been  well 
worked  and  well  compacted  acted  in  a  different 
manner.  Although  of  the  same  soil  type,  and  sub- 
jected to  the  same  treatment,  but  worked  so  thor- 
oughly that  the  soil  was  made  firm,  compact  and 
fine,  they  acted  differently.  The  seed  on  these 
areas  quickly  sprouted,  the  young  wheat  plants 
showed  the  usual  vitality  and  thrift,  and  at  harvest 
time  yielded  30  to  44  bushels  an  acre. 

The  field  under  discussion  yielded  but  nine 
bushels  to  the  acre.  A  part  of  it,  however,  when 
it  was  noted  that  the  germination  was  so  faulty 
and  impossible,  was  given  some  additional  culture 
through  the  use  of  a  heavy  roller,  to  serve  for  the 
purpose  of  packing.  The  roller,  weighed  down  as 
much  as  possible,  and  requiring  four  horses  to 
draw  it,  put  the  surface  soil  in  a  reasonably  good 
condition;  at  least,  enough  to  start  the  water  in 
the  subsoil  reservoir  upward,  connecting  it  with 
the  surface  body  in  which  rested  the  seed.  Evi- 
dence of  this  was  seen  within  a  day  or  two  at  the 
top  of  the  smooth  surface,  especially  in  the  morn- 
ings, which  showed  the  crust  moist  and  damp. 

PACKING  THE  SOIL  STARTS  WATER 
UPWARD 

Here  the  proof  was  seen.  The  water  was  mov- 
ing upward.  It  was  passing  straight  up  through 
the  layer  of  soil  in  which  the  seed  rested,  and  was 


GOOD  CROPS  FOR  SOIL  AND  STOCK 

At  the  top  we  see  a  splendid  field  of  soy  beans.  At  the 
bottom  a  crop  of  peas  and  oats  that  yielded  nine  tons  to  the 
acre. 


TWO   VERY   PROFITABLE   CROPS 


The  timothy  field  at  the  top  shows  what  good  tillage, 
good  feeding  and  good  land  preparation  will  dp.  At  the  bot- 
tom is  shown  a  field  of  Kaffir  corn  as  it  grows  in  Kansas. 


GETTING  THE  SEED  BED  RIGHT  2Q 

the  succor  needed  in  order  that  germination  might 
take  place.  In  a  few  days  the  sprouted  grain  made 
its  appearance  above  ground,  and,  while  belated 
and  backward,  overcame  largely  its  previous  mis- 
fortune and  delay.  At  harvest  this  area  yielded 
slightly  more  than  28  bushels  an  acre. 

I  should  state  here,  also,  that  as  soon  as  it  became 
apparent  that  the  soil  was  losing  its  moisture 
through  evaporation,  the  fine  peg-tooth  harrow  was 
dragged  over  the  field  in  order  to  break  the  smooth, 
even  crust  formed  by  the  roller  and  to  make  a 
mellow  mulch  at  the  top  of  the  soil  for  checking 
the  water  that  was  escaping  into  the  atmosphere. 

This  experience  has  always  been  a  concrete  ex- 
ample to  me,  showing  the  necessity  of  a  good  seed 
bed  that  must  be  made  right,  and  made  at  the  right 
time.  This  bit  of  experience  is  not  out  of  place, 
for  on  every  farm  some  land  is  being  made  ready 
for  some  fall  crop.  But  is  the  seed  bed  ready? 

MOISTURE   AND    SEED    BED 

For  a  good  stand  the  body  of  the  soil  must  be 
deep,  compact  and  of  otherwise  right  condition  for 
germination  and  thrifty,  active  growth.  Take  the 
wheat  field,  for  instance.  If  it  be  plowed  reason- 
ably early  the  chances  are  that  with  an  occasional 
disking  or  harrowing  the  soil  will  be  compacted 
and  the  weeds  sufficiently  held  in  check,  so  that  at 
seeding  time  enough  water  will  be  in  the  soil  to 
germinate  the  seed  and  to  start  the  crop.  If,  how- 
ever, plowing  comes  late,  as  it  does  often,  a  dif- 
ferent problem  is  before  you.  You  may  have  a 
crop  of  weeds  to  turn  under ;  and  these  weeds  may 
not  rot  fast  enough  to  allow  the  turned  soil  to  be 


30  FARM   CROPS 

welded  with  the  undersoil  so  that  capillarity  can 
take  place  by  seeding  time.  In  this  case  the 
moisture  in  the  storehouse  beneath  gets  into  the 
the  seed  bed  very  slowly,  thus  causing  a  poor 
stand  as  the  result. 

And  the  same  condition  prevails  if  the  soil  is  in  a 
bad  physical  condition.  When  you  turn  under 
clods,  coarse  manure,  and  have  an  otherwise  open 
connection  between  the  surface  or  seed  bed  soil 
and  the  water  reservoir  soil,  you  get  little  or  no 
help  from  the  water  stored  beneath.  The  right 
preparation  of  the  soil  demands  cautious  observa- 
tion of  these  matters  in  the  preparation  of  the 
seed  bed. 


EARLY   PLOWING    PROTECTS    WATER 
SUPPLY 

I  asked  a  successful  farmer  recently  why  he  never 
had  any  difficulty  in  starting  his  crops.  He  replied 
that  he  always  "  secured  a  perfect  seed  bed ;  and 
the  perfect  seed  bed  I  always  get  by  early  plowing 
and  by  repeated  workings,  using  the  disk,  the  peg- 
tooth  harrow  and  the  roller." 

Not  least  among  these  things  is  early  plowing. 
For  the  furrow-slice  itself  acts  as  a  mulch  and  holds 
in  the  soil  much  water  that  would  otherwise  escape. 
Then,  too,  where  weeds  grow,  water  is  used  up; 
and  when  the  winds  blow  over  unprotected  soil, 
water  is  licked  up  and  carried  away  from  soil  and 
seed. 

Early  plowing  gives'  weeds  and  grass  and  other 
debris  time  enough  to  rot  and  decay  and  to  become 
thoroughly  incorporated  into  the  soil.  By  the  time 


GETTING  THE  SEED  BED  RIGHT  3! 

the  top  soil  and  the  under  soil  have  been  knitted 
together  again  capillarity  is  at  work  sending  water 
into  the  seed  bed — just  where  newly  planted  seed 
can  get  the  advantage  of  it. 

Then,  too,  early  plowing  and  repeated  workings 
of  the  soil  mean  mellowness  and  fineness  and  com- 
pactness. All  of  these  do  much  to  make  the  seed 
bed  right  and  perfect.  You  want  no  loose,  open  top 
soil  unless  there  is  an  abundance  of  rain  to  start 


PEG-TOOTH    HARROW 

This  common  farm  tool  is  not  only  useful  in  preparing 
the  seed  bed,  but  it  has  a  place  in  weed  destruction.  After 
crops  like  corn,  or  cotton,  or  wheat  are  planted,  the  fine  peg- 
tooth  harrow  can  be  run  over  the  ground,  not  only  for  its  ef- 
fect in  mellowing  the  soil  and  conserving  the  moisture,  but  in 
destroying  the  grass  and  weed  seed  at  the  surface  of  the 
ground. 

the  crop.  Nor  do  you  want  a  cloddy  soil,  nor  one 
of  poor,  mechanical  form,  nor  one  in  bad  physical 
condition.  Such  will  not  be  conducive  to  a  good 
stand  or  to  vigor  or  healthy  growth.  A  poorly 
compacted,  lately  plowed,  clod-filled  soil  does  not 
make  a  good  seed  bed  and  handles  the  water  with 
little  or  no  satisfaction. 

Even  though  the  season  be  wet,  repeated  diskings 
or  harrowings  are  good,  because  they  keep  the 
weeds  down.  If  the  season  is  dry  and  the  soil  turns 


32  FARM  CROPS 

cloddy  and  hard,  then  disking,  dragging  and  rolling 
are  necessary  in  order  to  fine  and  compact  and 
mellow  the  soil. 

HARROW  RIGHT  AFTER  THE  PLOW 

In  the  preparation  of  the  soil,  to  harrow  immedi- 
ately after  plowing  is  always  advisable.  A  moist 
clod  is  a  good  deal  easier  to  break  than  is  a  dry, 
hard  one.  The  time  to  destroy  clods  is  immediately 
after  plowing,  while  the  soil  is  still  damp  and  fresh. 
Nor  is  it  best  to  wait  until  morning  nor  to  do  it  at 
night  after  a  day's  plowing  has  been  done.  For  sun 
and  air  soon  dry  and  harden ;  and  you  make  a  mis- 
take by  a  too  long  delay  in  working  soon  after 
plowing.  It  is  a  good  deal  better  to  change  from 
plow  to  harrow  four  or  five  times  each  day,  and 
back  again  if  you  can  do  better  work. 

Besides,  it  is  more  satisfying  to  you,  and  cer- 
tainly more  restful  to  your  team,  to  change  from 
one  kind  of  work  to  another  rather  frequently.  And 
it  is  most  certainly  true  that  you  can  greatly  lessen, 
the  work  of  a  seed  bed  preparation,  by  a  good  deal 
of  work,  if  you  drag  and  harrow  before  the  ground 
gets  hard  and  dry. 

WORK  THE  SOIL  WELL 

All  of  this  intensive  culture  pays.  First,  because 
the  plant  starts  better;  second,  because  the  soil  is 
in  better  physical  condition;  and,  third,  because 
plant  food  has  been  better  served  for  the  needs  of 
the  plant. 

A  plant,  for  instance,  has  a  good  deal  of  trouble 
to  get  nourishment  out  of  a  hard,  stony,  disagree- 


GETTING  THE  SEED   BED  RIGHT 


33 


able  clod.  Its  roots  won't  penetrate  a  big,  hard 
clod.  If,  however,  that  clod  during  the  period  of 
seed  bed  making  be  broken  up  into  thousands  of 
pieces  and  particles,  be  crushed  and  ground  into 
fine  earth  and  dust,  the  plant  food  stored  in  it  will 
be  rendered  available  because  the  atmosphere  and 
water  and  other  agents  that  make  plant  food  usable 


HEADER   AND   THRESHER 

In  the  Far  West,  the  combined  harvester  and  thresher  is 
commonly  used.  The  implement  is  propelled  by  a  traction 
engine.  It  is  possible  to  cover  a  swarth  40  feet  wide,  and  the 
harvesting  and  threshing  is  all  done  at  one  operation,  thus 
bringing  the  expense  of  the  work  down  to  a  minimum. 

can  then  more  actively  work,  and  can  make  of  the 
clod  a  palatable  dish  for  plants. 

WHEN  WHEAT   FOLLOWS   CORN 

Following  corn  with  wheat  is  now  being  prac- 
ticed more  and  more.  And  it  is  good  practice,  for 
it  admits  of  crop  rotation,  puts  in  a  wheat  crop  with 
no  expense  for  plowing,  and  provides  a  better  seed 
bed  if  the  corn  crop  has  been  rightly  cultivated 
than  fall  plowing  can  do.  Many  farmers  fail  to  get 


34  FARM    CROPS 

the  best  results  from  the  use  of  corn  ground  for 
wheat,  because  they  do  not  give  this  kind  of  land 
enough  seed  bed  preparation.  It  may  be  that  one 
disking  is  enough,  but  the  chances  are  against  it. 
Double  disking  and  a  cross-harrowing  will  do  the 
work  better  and  will  insure  the  crop. 

If  clean  cultivation  has  been  practiced,  there  is  a 
reasonably  good  seed  bed,  because  the  soil  is  com- 
pact, mellow  and  fine,  made  so  by  culture  in  the 
spring  and  by  the  cultivating  tools  during  the  corn- 
growing  season.  If  now  disked  and  cross-harrowed 
just  before  wheat  seeding,  so  as  to  level  and  open 
the  surface  crust,  a  good  covering  will  be  given 
the  seed,  and  just  about  as  good  a  crop  may  be 
expected  as  from  land  plowed  and  prepared  for 
wheat  in  the  usual  manner. 

The  difference  in  yield,  as  a  rule,  is  not  enough 
to  cover  the  extra  cost  of  plowing.  Hence  corn  and 
wheat  always  go  well  together;  so  much  so  that 
the  practice  is  extending  and  growing  more  popu- 
lar. But  if  best  results  are  to  be  secured,  the  soil 
must  be  selected  with  an  eye  for  both  wheat  and 
corn  and  each  crop  must  be  kept  in  mind  in  the 
culture  of  the  other. 


CHAPTER   IV 

Crop  Yields  and  Proper  Culture 

There  are  three  simple  and  important  factors 
which  have  much  to  do  with  increasing  the  crop 
yields:  Increasing  the  crop-producing  power  of  the 
soil  by  fertilizing  the  soil;  planting  seed  of  high- 
bred and  better  producing  varieties ;  practicing 
proper  and  more  thorough  culture  methods. 

The  last  of  these  is  really  the  simplest  and  most 
readily  applied.  Probably  more  low  yields  and  crop 
failures  are  due  to  insufficient  or  improper  cultiva- 
tion than  to  any  other  single  factor  over  which  the 
farmer  has  control  in  the  production  of  any  par- 
ticular crop.  With  a  soil  of  average  fertility,  the 
preparation  of  the  seed  bed  by  the  proper  tillage 
and  cultivation  methods  very  largely  determines  the 
yield  of  the  crop. 

Three  general  methods  of  tillage  for  preparing 
the  land  are  practiced :  Plowing,  listing  and 
disking.  There  may  be  variations  of  these  three 
methods;  as,  early  plowing,  late  plowing,  shallow 
plowing,  deep  plowing,  single  listing,  double 
listing,  little  cultivation  after  plowing,  frequent  cul- 
tivation after  plowing;  and  local  conditions  may  de- 
termine which  method  is  the  best.  That  certain 
methods  are  superior  to  others  has  been  proved  by 
comparative  trials  carried  on  at  the  experiment  sta- 
tions during  recent  years.  The  largest  average 
yield  an  acre  with  wheat  in  Kansas  for  two  years, 
37.43  bushels,  and  the  largest  net  profit  for  one 
year,  $35.59,  were  secured  by  plowing  August  15,  7 

35 


FARM   CROPS 


inches  deep.  This  land  was  cultivated  at  intervals 
after  the  plowing  with  the  harrow,  acme  or  disk. 
Thus  the  weeds  were  destroyed,  the  soil  moisture 
was  conserved  and  the  soil  was  well  pulverized  and 


WHEAT   HARVESTER 

The  improvements  that  have  been  made  on  this  machine 
since  1833  have  been  remarkable.  The  work  is  now  performed 
with  little  labor  and  is  better  done  than  in  the  old  days  with 
the  cradle  and  rake.  Wherever  wheat  is  raised  the  wheat  har- 
vester is  an  indispensable  tool. 

well  settled  and  put  into  excellent  seed  bed  condi- 
tion by  the  time  the  wheat  was  planted. 


IDEAL  SEED  BED  FOR  SMALL  SEEDS 


An  ideal  seed  bed  for  small  seeds  for  best  results 
should  not  be  mellow  or  loose  to  too  great  a  depth, 


CROP   YIELDS   AND   PROPER   CULTURE  37 

but  rather  the  soil  should  be  mellow  and  well  pul- 
verized only  about  as  deep  as  the  seed  is  planted. 
Below  that  depth  the  soil  should  be  firm  and  well 
settled,  making  a  good  connection  with  the  subsoil, 
so  that  the  soil  water  stored  in  the  subsoil  may  be 
drawn  up  into  the  surface  soil.  The  firm  soil  be- 
low the  seed,  well  connected  with  the  subsoil,  sup- 
plies moisture  to  the  germinating  seed  and  the 
young  plantlet,  while  the  mellow  soil  above  the 
seed  allows  sufficient  circulation  of  air  to  supply 
oxygen  and  favors  the  warming  of  the  soil,  gather- 
ing the  heat  of  the  sunshine  during  the  day  and 
acting  as  a  blanket  to  conserve  the  soil  heat,  main- 
taining a  more  uniform  temperature  of  the  soil  dur- 
ing the  night.  The  mellow  soil  mulch  above  the 
seed  conserves  the  soil  moisture,  acting  as  a  mulch 
to  keep  the  moisture  from  reaching  the  surface, 
where  it  would  be  rapidly  lost  by  evaporation.  The 
same  condition  favors  the  growth  of  the  young 
shoot  upward  into  the  air  and  sunshine. 

The  too  loose,  deep  seed  bed  is  almost  wholly 
dependent  upon  sufficient  rains  to  germinate  the 
seed  and  start  the  young  plants.  In  such  a  seed  bed 
drouth  is  very  apt  to  injure  the  plants,  because  of 
the  rapid  drying  out  of  the  soil  to  the  depth  of  the 
plowing.  In  the  loose  seed  bed,  wheat  and  grass 
for  instance,  is  not  only  apt  to  burn  out  in  the  sum- 
mer, but  it  is  also  more  apt  to  freeze  out  in  winter, 
than  wheat  grown  in  the  ideal  seed  bed  described 
above. 

The  seed  bed  for  corn,  cotton,  potatoes  and  sim- 
ilar crops  should  be  deeper  and  more  mellow  than 
the  seed  bed  for  small  seeds,  and  the  early  cultiva- 
tion of  the  corn  and  cotton  land  previous  to  plant- 
ing may  cause  a  marked  increase  in  yield,  as  shown 


38  FARM    CROPS 

by  experiments  which  have  been  recently  completed 
at  the  Kansas  station.  These  experiments  relate 
to  different  methods  of  tillage,  which  may  be  prac- 
ticed during  the  winter  or  early  spring,  in  prepar- 
ing the  seed  bed  and  include  deep  and  shallow  plow- 
ing, double  disking  and  listing,  namely,  plowing  land 
into  ridges  with  a  double  moldboard  plow  or  lister. 
In  these  experiments  corn  has  usually  been 
planted  in  listed  furrows,  except  that  the  surface 
and  lister  methods  of  planting  have  been  compared 
each  year  on  the  plowed  plats.  While  the  relative 
yields  vary  somewhat  from  year  to  year,  it  is  very 
clear  that  the  early  plowing  and  early  listing  have 
given  increased  yields  of  corn,  ranging  from  6  to 
12  bushels  an  acre. 

CULTIVATION  OF  CORN,  COTTON  AND 
POTATOES 

It  is  a  safe  rule  to  follow,  and  usually  pays  well, 
to  prepare  a  good  seed  bed  and  to  give  the  land 
thorough  cultivation  previous  to  planting.  After 
planting,  whether  listed  or  surface  planted,  it  is  a 
good  plan  to  harrow  these  crops  before  they  come 
up,  weather  conditions  permitting,  and  the  harrowing 
may  be  continued  with  good  results  until  the  crops 
are  2  or  3  inches  high.  Surface-planted  intertillage 
crops  may  usually  be  harrowed  safely  before  they 
are  up,  or  just  as  they  come  through  the  ground, 
but  harrowing  at  this  time,  when  the  plants  are 
very  small,  is  apt  to  cover  or  destroy  a  part  of 
them.  With  cotton  this  does  not  matter.  Do  not 
harrow  with  your  eyes  shut ;  keep  your  eyes  open, 
and,  if  in  your  judgment  the  crop  is  being  injured 
more  than  it  is  being  benefited,  do  not  harrow.  The 


CROP    YIELDS   AND   PROPER   CULTURE  39 

time  to  clean  is  at  the  first  cultivation.  Most  of 
the  weeds  in  the  row  or  hill  which  escape  the  first 
cultivation  cannot  be  covered  or  destroyed  at  suc- 
ceeding cultivations. 

While  it  is  not  practicable  to  recommend  any 
system  of  cultivation  which  will  suit  all  soils  and 
all  conditions,  the  following  plan  for  cultivating 
surface-planted  crops  on  land  which  is  fairly  mel- 
low and  not  too  trashy  is  very  satisfactory.  Soon 
after  planting  go  over  with  weeder  or  peg-tooth 
harrow.  If  possible,  harrow  a  second  time.  Cul- 
tivate deeply  the  first  time,  throwing  enough  soil 
to  the  plants  to  cover  the  weeds  in  the  row.  The 
second  cultivation  should  be  a  bit  more  shallow 
than  the  first,  while  the  third  and  fourth  cultiva- 
tions should  be  from  shallow  to  medium  deep.  If 
the  third  cultivation  can  follow  the  second  cultiva- 
tion closely  it  may  be  advisable,  provided  the  weeds 
were  well  covered  at  the  first  cultivation,  to  throw 
the  soil  away  from  the  row  at  the  second  cultiva- 
tion and  bring  it  back  again  at  the  third. 

After  the  crop  is  laid  by,  if  heavy  rains  pack  and 
settle  the  soil,  shallow  cultivation  with  a  single 
horse  cultivator  may  often  give  increased  yields 
and  a  clean  field.  Care  must  be  taken  not  to  cul- 
tivate too  deeply  so  as  to  injure  the  roots,  but 
medium  rather  than  very  shallow  cultivation  at  the 
close  of  the  season  when  the  crop  is  laid  by  is  pos- 
sible. Late  in  the  season,  during  the  hot,  dry 
days  of  July  and  August,  the  soil  will  dry  rapidly 
and  a  deeper  soil  mulch  is  needed  to  conserve  the 
soil  moisture  and  prevent  the  surface  soil  from  be- 
coming too  hot.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the  seed 
bed  has  been  well  prepared,  deeply  loosened  and 
well  pulverized,  the  plants  do  not  require  deep  cul- 


40  FARM   CROPS 

tivation  early  in  the  spring,  and  the  shallower 
cultivation  at  this  time  destroys  the  weeds  better 
and  allows  for  the  more  rapid  and  deeper  warming 
of  the  soil  than  the  too  deep  cultivation. 

Roots  gradually  approach  the  surface  near  the 
root  stock,  which  requires  that  the  surface-planted 
crop  be  not  cultivated  too  close  to  the  hill  at  the 
last  cultivation.  The  root  crowns  of  listed  corn, 


CORN   CULTIVATOR 

A  style  of  cultivator  that  destroys  the 
weeds  and  mellows  the  surface.  The  roots 
are  not  disturbed  at  all. 

for  instance,  being  several  inches  beneath  the  sur- 
face of  the  soil,  allow  for  deep  cultivation  close  to 
the  hill  without  injury  to  the  corn  roots.  The  vari- 
ation in  yield  by  the  different  methods  of  cultiva- 
tion from  year  to  year  and  the  nearly  uniform  aver- 
age yields  indicate  that  the  method  of  cultivation 
practiced,  whether  2  or  3  inches  may  not  make 
much  difference  in  the  yield  of  the  crop,  provided 
the  cultivation  is  done  well  and  at  the  right  time. 

WHY  WE  CULTIVATE 

The  primary  objects  in  cultivating  are  to  kill  the 
weeds  and  maintain  a  surface  mulch  of  mellow  soil 


CROP   YIELDS   AND   PROPER   CULTURE  4! 

to  conserve  the  soil  moisture.  The  mellow  surface 
also  favors  the  catching  and  storing  of  the  rains. 
The  stirring  in  early  spring  warms  the  soil  by  de- 
creasing the  evaporation  of  water,  and  the  mulch 
of  mellow  soil  acts  as  a  blanket  to  prevent  the  rapid 
radiation  of  heat  from  the  soil.  The  soil  is  also 
aerated  by  cultivation,  the  foul  gases  arising  from 
decaying  organic  matter  are  removed,  and  life-giv- 
ing oxygen  is  supplied  to  the  soil  bacteria  and  to 
the  growing  plant  roots;  and  more  than  this,  the 
fertility  of  the  soil  is  developed  by  cultivation. 

The  store  or  plant  food  in  the  soil  is  largely  in 
an    unavailable    condition;    before   the   potassium, 


TWO-ROW   CORN    CULTIVATOR 

With  straight  rows  one  man  and  three 
horses  are  enabled  to  do  the  work  of  two 
men  and  four  horses.  This  is  quite  an  item 
in  cultivating  large  areas  of  corn. 

phosphorus  and  nitrogen  become  soluble,  and  thus 
available  to  the  plant,  the  soil  must  pass  through 
a  stage  of  disintegration  and  chemical  change,  which 
can  take  place  only  in  the  presence  of  moisture,  heat 
and  air,  factors  which  are  largely  controlled  by  cul- 
tivation, soil  and  climatic  conditions  being  similar. 
There  are,  perhaps,  no  exact  rules  or  methods  for 


42  FARM    CROPS 

cultivating,  but  a  farmer  observing  the  crop  and 
soil  conditions,  and  understanding  the  principles  of 
soil  cultivation,  may  vary  the  manner  and  practice 
of  cultivation  somewhat  to  suit  the  conditions  and 
accomplish  the  objects  desired. 

It  is  very  important  to  cultivate  at  the  right  time. 
An  experiment  carried  on  for  two  years  at  the  Kan- 
sas station,  in  cultivating  corn  at  the  right  time 
and  the  wrong  time,  resulted  as  follows:  Average 
yield  for  wrong  time  cultivation,  61.9  bushels  an 
acre;  average  yield  for  right  time  cultivation,  67.8 
bushels  an  acre,  or  6.1  bushels  an  acre  in  favor  of 
cultivating  the  corn  at  the  right  time.  The  right 
time  means  soon  after  the  rain,  when  the  weeds 
have  started  and  the  soil  is  just  dry  enough  to  cul- 
tivate well.  The  wrong  time  is  a  week  or  ten  days 
later  when  the  weeds  have  become  larger  and  the 
soil  is  hard  and  dry  and  turns  over  in  clods  and 
lumps.  It  costs  more  to  cultivate  at  the  wrong 
time  than  at  the  right  time,  because  of  the  slower 
and  more  difficult  work  and  greater  draft  of  the 
cultivator,  due  to  unfavorabe  soil  conditions,  and 
yet  the  right  time  cultivation  increases  the  yield. 

It  is  important  to  use  the  best  implements,  but 
doing  the  work  well  and  at  the  right  time  is  even 
of  more  importance  than  the  type  of  cultivator  used. 
No  one  type  of  cultivator  can  be  recommended  as 
superior  to  others,  but  different  kinds  of  cultivators 
are  useful  for  different  work  and  for  different  con- 
ditions. The  crop  grower  should  have  more  than 
one  kind  of  cultivator. 


CHAPTER  V 
What  Crops  for  Feeding 

The  best  system  of  agriculture  is  based  upon 
good  crops  and  well-bred  live  stock.  With  these 
to  be  possible  the  following  propositions  must  be 
always  kept  in  mind.  First,  the  soil  must  be  rich 
in  the  simple  elements  of  plant  food,  that  there 
may  be  an  abundance  of  farm  crops.  Second,  the 
farm  crops  must  be  adapted  to  climatic  and  soil 
environments,  so  as  to  produce  from  the  elements 
in  the  soil  the  largest  growth  of  desirable  plant 
products  or  animal  food.  Third,  superior  farm 
stock  must  be  raised  in  order  to  secure  the  cheap 
production  of  high  quality  meat  and  milk  or  wool 
and  labor  with  the  least  expenditure  of  food. 

The  farmer,  to  make  agriculture  remunerative, 
must  adapt  himself  to  what  falls  within  these  three 
lines.  He  must  enrich  the  soil.  He  must  aid 
Nature  in  her  efforts  to  change  the  unavailable  plant 
food  into  an  assimilable  form.  Before  the  plant  or 
animal  died  it  was  unavailable  for  plant  food.  The 
soil  always  holds  locked-up  food  in  its  storehouse. 
It  is  just  like  preserved  fruit  and  vegetables.  Our 
wives  take  tomatoes,  for  instance,  and  after  pre- 
paring them,  put  them  in  the  cans  and  seal  them 
up  to  prevent  decay  and  decomposition.  In  the 
same  way  our  soils  have  been  treated.  We  have 
canned  them  up,  so  to  speak,  by  taking  out  or- 
ganic matter,  by  shallow  plowing,  and  by  careless- 
ness in  tillage,  until  these  soils  are  hard  and  baked 
and  dead.  The  air  no  longer  enters  freely,  and 

43 


44 


FARM   CROPS 


consequently  the  unavailable  plant  food  is  not  ren- 
dered assimilable. 

If  the  plow  is  turned  loose  in  these  soils,  and  the 
land  carefully  and  thoroughly  tilled  and  cultivated 
and  at  the  same  time  if  organic  matter  is  freely 
returned  through  cowpeas,  clover  and  the  stable 
manures,  soils  will  quickly  change  from  their  un- 
productive condition  into  that 
other  state  which  produces 
remunerative  crops.  Where 
the  soil  is  poor,  the  crops  are 
poor,  and  poor  crops  permit 
only  poor  live  stock. 

But  the  ideal  agriculture 
maintains  itself.  Every  sys- 
tem of  farming  should  con- 
sist of  both  plant  production 
and  the  feeding  of  animals. 
The  importance  of  this  is  seen 
from  the  following:  Clover, 
cowpeas,  alfalfa  and  other 
BEGGAR  WEED  legumes  are  needed  to  build 


in  the  sandy  lands  along  the    very    kinds    of    CrOOS    WC 
the    gulf   coast.      It   re-  ,    <•        i 

quires  a  warm  soil  and  Want  lor  horses,   Cattle,   sheep 
rather      moist.       It      is  j          •  I-KT        1        11 

splendid  for    hay    and   and  swine.     We  should  grow 

poses.  renovatins    pur'   such  crops  to  improve  the  soil 

and  thereby  get  larger  yields 

of  grain,  forage  and  grass  crops  to  obtain  plants 

rich  in  feeding  constituents. 

CATTLE  FOODS  THAT  HELP  THE  LAND 


Natural  manures  and  fertilizers  are  needed  for  im- 
proving the  soil.     The  more  live  stock  we  have,  the 


WHAT  CROPS  FOR  FEEDING  45 

greater  the  quantity  of  manures  produced.  The 
commercial  fertilizer  bill  is  our  greatest  tax,  and  it 
is  to  a  great  extent  unnecessary,  for  if  businesslike 
agriculture  is  followed,  chemicals  will  be  needed 
only  to  a  limited  extent.  It  should  be  our  policy 
to  purchase  fertilizers  in  the  form  of  feeding  stuffs. 
Take  a  dollar  and  purchase  cottonseed  meal  or  tank- 
age or  gluten,  but  instead  of  applying  direct  to  the 
soil,  as  sources  of  nitrogen  in  the  fertilizer,  first  feed 
them  to  live  stock  and  get  the  value  of  the  organized 
condition  of  the  elements. 

The  important  difference  between  plant  food  or 
fertilizers  and  animal  food  or  plants  lies  in  the  fact 
that  the  plant  takes  the  unorganized  chemical 
elements  and  manufactures  or  builds  them  into  or- 
ganized tissue,  which  is  the  plant  or  the  fruit  of  the 
plant.  The  plant  or  the  fruit  of  the  plant  is  fed  to 
live  stock,  and  meat  or  milk  or  wool  or  labor  is 
produced  from  the  organized  material.  The  animals 
return  to  the  soil  the  very  chemical  elements  that 
the  plant  originally  contained,  only  in  a  disorgan- 
ized condition,  which  is  the  only  way  in  which 
plants  can  use  them  for  new  growth.  Thus  the 
plant  feeds  the  animal,  the  animal  feeds  the  plant. 

The  animal  changes  raw  materials  into  finished 
products.  The  feeder  can  use  corn,  grass,  cow- 
peas,  clover,  bran  and  cottonseed  meal  and  make 
balanced  rations  for  all  classes  of  live  stock.  These 
are  simply  raw  materials,  which  command  the 
lowest  prices  when  placed  on  the  markets  of  the 
world.  An  increased  value  follows  their  change 
into  a  finished  product.  A  dairy  cow,  when  fed  a 
mixture  of  25  pounds  of  corn  stover,  cowpea  hay 
and  cottonseed  meal,  with  a  value  of  but  a  few 
cents,  will  produce  from  them  2  pounds  of  butter 


46  FARM   CROPS 

worth  many  cents.  The  increased  value  is  the  re- 
sult of  the  change  from  the  raw  material  into  the 
finished  product. 

FEEDING   STUFFS   SHOULD  BE  HOME 
RAISED 

Little  need  be  said  about  the  importance  of  grow- 
ing on  the  farm  all  the  bulk  food  required  for  live 
stock.  For  one  thing  the  greater  part  of  the  feed- 
ing stuffs  can  be  grown  cheaper  than  they  can  be 
bought  of  some  one  else.  Practically  all  materials 
grown  on  the  farm  and  used  for  feeding  purposes 
are  low  in  protein  but  correspondingly  high  in 
other  nutrients.  The  farmer  can  raise  all  the  car- 
bohydrates and  fat  needed  for  either  the  dairy  or 
the  block,  but  unfortunately  there  are  no  feeding 
stuffs  made  up  wholly  of  protein.  If  there  were, 
the  balancing  of  rations  in  reference  to  cost  would 
be  a  very  simple  process  indeed. 

PROTEIN  NOT  SOLELY  PURCHASED 

Though  protein  is  the  constituent  most  needed 
on  most  farms,  when  purchased,  other  nutrients 
must  be  taken  along*  with  the  protein.  Carbo- 
hydrates and  fat  are  present  in  all  feeding  stuffs 
and  they  have  a  commercial  value.  Consequently 
when  we  buy  protein  we  get  also  carbohydrates 
and  fat.  It  should  not  be  understood  that  these 
latter  constituents  are  a  trouble  or  a  nuisance ;  they 
have  a  value.  But  you  readily  see  it  is  unfortunate 
to  purchase  them  when  their  like  can  be  secured  at 
home.  It  suggests  the  same  idea  that  a  necktie 
must  always  be  purchased  with  a  collar.  One  may 


WHAT  CROPS   FOR   FEEDING 


47 


never  wear  a  necktie,  or  he  may  have  all  he  needs 

at   home,   yet   every   time   he   buys   a   collar  he   is 

obliged  to  pay  for  a  necktie  as  well.   If  a  necktie  is 

not  needed,  but  only  a  collar,  it  is  likely  the  rule 

would  be  to  get  the  collar  having  the  least  necktie 

about  it  and  the  value  of  the  purchase  would  be 

placed  wholly  upon  the  collar  and  nothing  on  the 

necktie.     If   a  farmer   raises   on   his   farm   all   the 

carbohydrates    and   fat   he 

needs,   and   which   have   a 

low  commercial   value,  he 

cannot  afford  to  buy  more 

of  the  same  constituents  at 

a  price  many  times  higher 

than  he  can  raise  the  same 

himself.     Yet  the  feeder  is 

obliged    to    do    this    very 

thing   when    he    purchases 

protein.       It      cannot      be 

helped  and  it  is  no  one's 

fault.     There  is  a  point  of 

practical  bearing,  however, 

in  this  matter — if  you  have 

to  take  carbohydrates  and 

fat  along  with  protein  and 

pay  for  them,  get  as  little 

possible  Carbohydrates  and  the   deep   kernel   is  wanted. 

*i  r       , .  ~.          .  With   large   cobs    and   shal- 

fat  in  the  feeding  Stuff  and  low  grains   the  yield  is  al- 

.  7    .  ways     smaller     than     with 

JUSt  as  much  protein  as  yOU  deep     grains     and     smaller 

can.  The  aim  should  be  to  cobs* 
buy  the  feeding  stuff  having  the  highest  quantity  of 
digestible  protein  that  costs  the  least  for  a  pound  of 
protein.  Expressed  in  a  few  words  a  good  rule  to 
follow  is  this :  To  grow  all  of  the  carbohydrates  and 
fat  and  not  to  purchase  any;  to  grow  the  protein 


48  FARM  CROPS 

roughages,  such  as  clover,  cowpeas  and  alfalfa,  and 
little  protein  will  need  to  be  bought.  This  is 
economical  and  practical  feeding.  It  is  good  farm- 
ing. 

USING  JUDGMENT  IN  GETTING  PROTEIN 

In  purchasing  protein,  judgment  must  be  exer- 
cised in  selecting  the  carrier  of  it.  For  instance, 
corn  is  slightly  cheaper  than  bran  on  the  basis  of 
total  digestible  nutrients,  but,  if  for  the  dairy,  bran 
should  be  purchased  rather  than  corn,  because  the 
bran  contains  nearly  twice  the  amount  of  protein 
that  corn  does.  Cottonseed  meal  contains  just 
about  five  times  as  much  digestible  protein  as  corn, 
and  if  the  two  could  be  purchased  at  the  same 
price  for  each  pound  of  digestible  nutrients,  cotton- 
seed meal  would  be  many  times  more  valuable  than 
corn,  because  of  the  very  much  larger  quantity  of 
protein. 

Roughage  materials  should  be  as  carefully 
selected  as  the  concentrates.  It  is  often  advisable 
to  sell  one  kind  of  feeding  stuff  and  purchase  one 
or  more  kinds  in  exchange.  It  is  usually  economy 
to  sell  corn  and  oats  and  make  an  outright  purchase 
of  cottonseed  meal,  gluten  meal  and  bran.  Often  one 
can  sell  his  roughage  materials  to  good  advantage 
and  secure  others  that  contain  more  of  the  con- 
stituents desired,  and  in  so  doing  the  amount  of 
concentrated  foods  can  be  cut  down. 

If  the  feeder  uses  corn  stover  and  timothy  hay, 
he  will  necessarily  be  forced  to  balance  his  rations 
with  concentrated  materials.  On  the  other  hand, 
if  he  uses  cowpea  hay,  alfalfa  or  clover  hay  in  main 
for  roughage,  the  necessary  grain  material  will  be 


WHAT  CROPS   FOR   FEEDING  49 

small.  I  know  markets  in  which  timothy  hay  is 
sold  for  $20  a  ton  and  up,  while  cowpea  hay,  alfalfa 
and  clover  sell  for  $20  a  ton  and  under.  You  see 
at  once  that  the  legume  hays  are  the  most  eco- 
nomical, for  they  contain  three  times  as  much  digest- 
ible protein  as  timothy.  It  is  to  our  advantage  to 
dispose  of  the  timothy  and  with  the  same  money 
purchase  the  legume  hays.  The  saving  in  corn  and 
bran  or  other  concentrates  will  be  clear  profit. 

IN  BUYING  DAIRY  FEEDS   GET  PROTEIN 

Do  you  remember  the  old  story  about  paying  too 
much  for  a  whistle?  Ben  Franklin,  the  Ben  of 
Poor  Richard,  the  Ben  who  did  so  much  for  liberty 
and  justice  in  the  early  days,  was  responsible  for  it. 
The  purpose  of  the  story  you  will  recall,  was  to 
point  out  the  folly  of  extravagance,  the  folly  of 
buying  useless  things,  the  folly  of  making  unwise 
selections,  the  folly  of  choosing  without  consider- 
ing the  value  or  need.  That  tale  of  our  school- 
days has  not  yet  lost  its  meaning  or  its  force,  and 
is  especially  potent  whenever  feeding  stuffs  or  fer- 
tilizers are  to  be  purchased.  For,  after  all,  when 
we  go  to  market  for  these  things,  we  do  often  pay 
too  much  for  the  whistles  we  get.  Every  time  I 
see  a  dairy  farmer  setting  out  for  home  with  a  load 
of  corn  for  his  cows,  I  think  that  he  has  bought  a 
whistle,  and  has,  indeed,  paid  too  much  for  it. 
Every  time  fertilizers  are  purchased,  the  purchaser 
not  having  studied  their  contents  nor  the  nature  of 
his  land  nor  the  requirements  of  his  crops,  my 
thoughts  go  back  to  the  whistle,  and  I  think,  in  his 
case,  he  has  likely  paid  too  much  for  his  whistle. 

And  now,  when  feeds  are  very  high,  with  the 


50  FARM    CROPS 

thousands  of  cattle  to  be  fed  with  purchased  feeds, 
I  think  of  the  whistle  and  wonder  how  many  men 
are  paying  too  much  for  the  ones  they  have  pur- 
chased. Although  much  has  been  said  and  written 
about  the  feeding  of  farm  animals,  the  fact  re- 
mains, nevertheless,  that  the  purchase  of  their  feed 
is  still  a  sort  of  a  hit  or  miss  affair.  Some  buy 
without  regard  to  relative  merits,  some  select  feeds 
because  they  are  cheap,  some  use  only  the  old  stand- 
ard kinds  and  some  only  those  at  hand  and  easiest 
to  get.  To  me,  however,  any  one  of  these  methods  is 
the  purchase  of  a  whistle  for  which  too  high  a  price 
is  paid. 

The  few  things  that  are  already  certainly 
known  about  feeds  should  never  be  allowed  to  get 
away  from  our  minds.  I  allude  especially  to  their 
composition,  the  ingredients  being  protein,  the 
muscle  and  milk  makers;  fat  and  starch,  the  fat 
and  heat  makers;  mineral  matter,  the  bone  maker; 
and  water,  just  plain  water.  Water  and  mineral 
matter  need  not  concern  us,  for  the  reason  that  they 
are  either  present  in  sufficient  quantities  or  can  be 
easily  provided.  The  constituents  that  really  con- 
cern us  are  protein,  fat  and  starch.  The  ordinary 
crops  of  the  farm  contain  the  latter  two,  but  with 
few  exceptions  they  are  deficient  in  protein.  The 
farm,  therefore,  provides  bounteously  the  fats  and 
starches,  and  is  in  a  sense  a  big  heat  factory  in 
which  is  made  the  constituents  for  heat,  fat  and 
energy  for  live  stock.  And  the  farm  might  be 
made  to  grow  the  protein  also,  if  the  clovers,  alfalfa 
and  other  legumes  were  readily  taken  to  heart,  as 
they  should  be.  Negligent  though  we  may  be 
in  regard  to  home-grown  protein,  most  farmers  are 
abundantly  provided  with  carbohydrates  and  fat. 


WHAT   CROPS   FOR   FEEDING  51 

Thus  one  side  of  the  feeding  problem  is  settled. 
The  other  side,  the  protein  side,  remains  unsettled, 
and  is  the  real  necessity  for  the  purchase  of  grains 
and  store  feeds.  And  right  here  is  where  most 
men  pay  too  much  for  their  whistles.  They  get 
the  wrong  feed ;  they  select  one  without  due  regard 
as  to  what  it  contains.  Now,  mind  you,  it  is  pro- 
tein that  you  want.  Why  will  you  buy  a  food,  a 
grain  food  though  it  be,  and  rich  in  starch,  when 
your  silo,  your  haymows,  and  your  corn  shocks  are 
just  fairly  bulging  out  with  this  constituent  already? 
When  you  do  this,  you  simply  haul  home  what  you 
have  already  in  abundance;  you  are  buying  a 
whistle  for  which  you  have  no  need. 

But  your  real  problem  is  to  get  protein,  to  select 
a  feed  that  analyzes  high  in  digestible  protein  es- 
pecially, and  relatively  low  in  all  other  constituents ; 
and  you  can  do  this  most  wisely  only  by  comparing 
the  several  feeds  on  the  market  and  judging  them  in 
reference  to  the  protein  content  and  the  cost  of  each 
protein  unit  in  the  feed. 

Corn  and  Cottonseed  Meal. — Let  me  use  corn 
as  an  example.  You  know  how  excellent  corn 
is  as  a  hog  food,  a  horse  food,  a  food  for  fat- 
tening cattle;  it  is  superior  for  these  purposes, 
because  it  is  rich  in  starch  and  fat,  and  in  being  so 
makes  heat,  fat  and  energy  cheaply  and  abundantly. 
As  a  milk  producer,  however,  it  is  inferior,  because 
it  is  deficient  in  protein,  the  very  constituent  so 
needed  in  dairy  rations.  Why  buy  it  for  dairy 
cows,  therefore,  if  it  does  not  possess  the  one  con- 
stituent you  need  and  are  seeking?  Is  it  not  better 
to  choose  another  feed,  some  kind  that  carries  pro- 
tein abundantly?  I  think  so.  Indeed,  we  have 
many  foods  far  superior  for  milk  cows  than  corn.  We 


52  FARM    CROPS 

have  many  that  are  superior  to  oats  or  wheat.  We 
have  cottonseed  meal  or  gluten  meal,  linseed  oil 
meal  and  many  others.  We  have  many  foods  on  the 
market  high  in  protein  and  low  in  starch  and  fat 
and  fiber. 

But  for  purposes  of  comparison  let  us 
take  corn  and  cottonseed  meal.  Now  just  note 
these  differences.  Corn  contains  7.9  pounds  of 
digestible  protein  in  each  100  of  grain,  and  cotton- 
seed meal  42.6.  The  first  is  low  in  protein,  the 
second  high.  If  you  purchase  in  ton  lots,  the  corn 
will  give  you  158  pounds  of  digestible  protein  to 
the  ton  and  cottonseed  meal  852  pounds.  A  vast 
difference,  is  it  not?  And  the  man  who  rejects  the 
one  to  hold  fast  to  the  other  because  custom  has 
prevailed  that  way,  pays  a  big  price  for  his  whistle. 

But  someone  says  that  cottonseed  meal  costs  $36 
a  ton,  while  corn  is  worth  but  65  cents  a  bushel; 
is  not  corn  the  cheaper.  Indeed  it  is  not.  For 
fattening  hogs,  corn  is  ideal;  and  for  fattening 
horses  and  cattle  it  is  almost  indispensable;  but 
for  dairy  cows  that  need  the  protein  the  cottonseed 
meal  is  the  cheapest.  Let  us  figure  a  bit.  Corn 
at  65  cents  figures  about  $23.40  a  ton ;  less,  really, 
than  the  cottonseed  meal.  Since,  however,  you  are 
after  the  protein,  and  a  ton  of  corn  contains  158 
pounds  of  it,  the  cost  of  each  pound  of  protein  is  a 
fraction  over  14  cents.  In  the  cottonseed  meal  you 
get  852  pounds  of  protein  for  $36,  or  a  pound  of 
protein  for  4.2  cents.  Even  if  you  give  full  credit 
for  the  fat  and  starch  in  both  feed  for  feeding  dairy 
cows,  the  preference  must  go  to  the  feeding  stuff 
carrying  the  most  protein.  But  the  fact  is  corn 
does  not  compete  with  other  products  as  dairy  feed 
as  it  did  in  former  days.  Corn  is  now  so  greatly 


WHAT  CROPS  FOR  FEEDING  53 

in  demand  for  other  purposes  that  its  use  in  the 
dairy  barn  is  being  replaced  by  various  other  kinds 
of  concentrates.  I  have  used  it  here  to  show  the 
importance  of  a  study  of  the  protein  content  when 
purchased  feeding  stuffs  are  sought.  The  com- 
parisons between  corn  and  cottonseed  meal  have 
been  made  for  the  sole  purpose  of  suggesting  what 
every  dairyman  ought  to  do  when  he  needs  any 
kind  of  mill  feed  or  any  other  prepared  feed  now  on 
the  market  as  a  concentrate  for  the  feeding  of 
dairy  cows. 

Now,  mind  you,  your  silage,  corn  stover,  hay  and 
other  home-grown  farm  feeds  will  take  care  of  the 
carbohydrate  materials — the  starches,  the  fibers,  the 
sugars — and  the  fat.  Your  problem  is  to  get  pro- 
tein, and  if  you  desire  to  have  your  cows  do  their 
best,  hence  increase  your  profits,  you  will  obtain 
the  feed  or  feeds  that  gives  you  the  protein  at  the 
cheapest  cost  per  pound  of  digestible  material. 
Otherwise  you  will  pay  dear  for  your  whistle. 


CHAPTER  VI 

What  Forage  Crops  Are  Best 

Economy  in  raising  live  stock  means  the  produc- 
tion of  all  roughage  materials  on  the  farm.     It  is 
possible  to  purchase  all  roughage  material  and  yet 
make  a  financial  success  of  growing  farm  animals, 
but  it  is  not  likely;  nor  is  it  reasonable  or  sensible 
to  do  so.     In  deciding  what  forage  and  grain  crops 
to  grow,  it  is  well  to  consider  the  following: 
I.     The  crops  in  relation  to  soil  and  climate. 
II.     The  crops  in  relation  to  line  of  business. 

III.  The  home  production  of  protein. 

IV.  The  growing  of  crops  that  have  power  of 

producing  the  greatest  quantity  of  digest- 
ible dry  matter. 
V.     Soil     improvement    in    relation    to     crops 

grown. 

Crops  in  Relation  to  Soil  and  Climate. — Farm 
crops  are  not  equally  adapted  to  all  soils  and 
climates.  Cottonseed  cannot  be  produced  in  the 
North  because  of  the  cooler  and  shorter  seasons. 
Timothy  and  blue  grass  are  most  productive  in  cool, 
limestone  soils,  and  cowpeas  are  more  at  home  in 
warm,  dry  soils.  Nature  has  been  generous,  how- 
ever, and  has  looked  after  the  matter  of  crops  and 
grasses  quite  carefully.  If  we  but  do  our  part  there 
will  be  no  difficulty  in  providing  all  roughage  ma- 
terials necessary  for  the  successful  production  of 
live  stock. 

Our  aim  should  be  to  make  the  best  use  of  what 
we  have,  to  improve  by  selection  and  care  those 

54 


WHAT   FORAGE   CROPS   ARE   BEST 


55 


species  best  adapted  to  our  soil  and  climate;  and 
by  better  methods  of  cultivation,  growing  and  car- 
ing, secure  still  greater  yields  and  better  returns 
at  the  cheapest  cost  of  production. 

This  does  not  mean  we  shall  refuse  to  try  new 
plants  and  endeavor  to  adapt  them  to  our  peculiar 
conditions.  If  a  new  plant  is  found  of  peculiar 
value  to  our  environments  and  business,  let  us 
endeavor  to  bring  it  to  our  service  by  all  means. 
But  let  us  hold  on  to  our  old  friends  till  we  have 
tried  the  new  and  are  sure  the  change  is  no  mistake. 

Crops  in  Relation  to  Line  of  Business. — A  farmer 
necessarily  becomes  a  specialist.  He  gathers  those 


A  SOIL  IN  NEED  OF  NITROGEN 

This  land  was  fertilized  alike  with  muriate  of  potash  and 
acid  phosphate.  The  small  shock  on  the  left  received  no 
nitrogen;  the  shock  on  the  right  received  a  full  ration  of 
nitrogen  and  the  middle  shock  a  third  of  a  ration  of  nitrogen. 
The  increase  due  to  this  element  of  plant  food  is  very  marked. 

classes  of  animals  about  him  which  he  likes  best 
and  finds  most  profitable.  He  will  do  the  same 
with  the  crops  for  carrying  on  his  business.  The 
silo,  for  instance,  is  necessary  for  the  highest  suc- 
cess in  dairying.  Succulent  food  must  be  furnished 
throughout  the  year.  The  silo,  then,  is  the  winter 
pasture  field. 

Soiling  crops  should  be  provided  to  supplement 
the  summer  pastures  when  they  become  dry  and 


56  FARM   CROPS 

parched.  Fattening  cattle  need  good-sized  corn 
fields  for  stover  and  grain.  The  successful  farmer 
of  today  and  of  the  future  will  have  at  his  hand  the 
use  of  crops  and  methods  for  his  special,  particular 
purpose.  The  ordinary  farmer  will  go  on  in  the 
same  old  way  and  continue  to  say  farming  does 
not  pay. 

The  Home  Production  of  Protein. — The  experi- 
ment station  has  given  us  positive  evidence  of  the 
importance  of  protein  for  all  classes  of  farm  animals. 
The  gist  of  the  matter  is :  we  have  been  feeding  too 
little  protein,  because  the  ordinary  farm  crops  are 
deficient  in  this  constituent  and  we  have  found  out 
only  recently  how  and  where  it  can  be  obtained. 
The  discovery  shows  that  protein  costs  money. 
To  balance  feeding  rations  properly  we  have  been 
obliged  to  purchase  large  quantities  of  grains  and 
concentrates  to  supply  the  needed  protein. 

To  bring  the  purchased  amount  of  protein  down 
to  the  minimum  quantity  is  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant questions  before  the  feeder  today.  This 
can  be  done  to  a  very  great  extent  by  growing 
those  crops  having  relatively  high  percentages  of 
protein,  such  as  cowpeas,  clover,  vetches,  soy  beans 
and  alfalfa.  There  are  a  few  others  like  these,  but 
those  named  are  the  most  important  and  two  or 
more  can  be  grown  readily  in  every  section  of  our 
country.  Alfalfa,  cowpeas  and  clover  have  already 
been  grown  in  the  East,  South  and  West  and 
long  since  have  passed  the  experimental  state.  Fol- 
lowing is  a  ration  almost  wholly  home  grown  and 
furnishes  the  necessary  digestible  nutrients  in 
proper  quantity  and  proportion  for  a  dairy  cow  in 
full  flow  of  milk,  and  costs  for  an  outside  purchase 
less  than  three  cents  a  day  for  each  cow. 


WHAT   FORAGE   CROPS   ARE   BEST  57 

HOME  GROWN  RATION  FOR  DAIRY  COW 


DRY  MATTER 

DIGESTIBLE  NUTRIENTS 

Feeding  Stuff 

*Cowpea,  Clover  or 
Alfalfa  hay,  15 

Corn  stover,  10  Ibs. 

Ibs.  __13.50 
5.95 

Protein 

1.62 
.17 
.27 
.74 

Carbohydrates 
5.79 

3.24 
3.39 
.33 

Fat 
.16 

.07 
.21 
.24 

Corn  silage,  30  Ibs. 
Cottonseed  meal,  2 
Total  

6.27 

Ibs...  1.87 

27.59 

2.80 

12.75 

.68 

*  Figures  of  the  legumes  are  approximate. 

If  timothy  hay  had  been  used  in  place  of  cowpea 
hay,  several  pounds  of  meal  and  bran  would  have 
been  required  to  furnish  the  protein  to  balance  the 
ration,  and  supply  the  deficiency  in  the  roughage 
feeding  materials.  Clover  and  alfalfa  are  as  nutri- 
tious from  the  standpoint  of  protein,  and  can  be 
used  in  the  same  way.  Every  stockman  should 
consider  well  the  bearing  this  fact  has  upon  feed- 
ing, for  with  it  may  lie  success  or  failure.  He  can 
at  least  be  assured  that  with  its  practice  greater 
profit  will  result. 

Growing  Crops  for  the  Greatest  Quantity  of 
Digestible  Nutrients. — We  are  prone  to  call  a  crop 
a  crop  without  considering  its  productive  capacity. 
This  is  a  mistake;  especially  when  it  is  not  a 
source  of  protein  supply.  It  should  be  our  policy 
to  grow  such  crops  as  are  heavy  producers.  When 
we  consider  the  matter  in  this  way  we  see  that  one 
acre  often  produces  as  many  pounds  of  digestible 
nutrients  as  two  acres  of  some  other  crop.  The 


FARM   CROPS 


following  table,  arranged  by  Dr.  Jordan,  gives  us 
a   vivid   explanation   in   this   respect: 


Feeding  Stuff 

Field  per 
Acre  Fresh 
Material 

Dry 
Matter 

Dry 

Matter 
per  Acre 

Dry 

Matter 
Digestible 

Digestible 
Dry  Matter 
per  Acre 

Alfalfa 

Pounds 

35,000 

Per  Ct. 
25.0 

Pounds 
8,750 

Per  Ct. 

69 

Pounds 

5  162 

Indian  Corn__ 

30,000 

25.0 

7,500 

61 

5,025 

Red  Clover.  __ 

18,000 

30.0 

5,400 

57 

3,070 

Oats  and  Peas 
Timothy 

20,000 
11,500 

16.2 
38.4 

3,240 
4,416 

65 

57 

2,106 
2,517 

It  is  readily  seen  from  the  table  that  alfalfa  and 
corn  produce  nearly  twice  as  much  digestible 
nutrients  as  timothy,  which  is  of  considerable  im- 
portance, especially  when  good  tillable  land  is  not 
readily  available. 

Soil  Improvement  in  Relation  to  Crops  Grown. — 
A  good  farmer  should  always  be  thinking  of  im- 
proving his  soil.  This  is  wise  not  only  for  pos- 
terity but  immediate  crop  production  as  well. 

Crops  that  may  be  termed  soil  depleters  should 
be  grown  as  infrequently  as  possible.  Since  the 
leguminous  crops  add  nitrogen  to  the  soil  and  at 
the  same  time  are  the  best  sources  for  protein  sup- 
ply, it  follows  that  they  should  receive  primary  at- 
tention in  every  system  of  crop  rotation.  We  want 
crops  that  will  furnish  the  largest  quantities  of 
needed  nutrients  and  at  the  same  time  that  will 
improve  the  soil.  The  clovers,  the  cowpea  and  al- 
falfa will  be  more  extensively  grown  in  the  future 
and  will  occupy  a  much  more  important  place  in 
every  system  of  farming  than  is  now  accorded  them. 


WHAT  FORAGE   CROPS  ARE  BEST  59 

THE   WORK   THE   LEGUMES   DO 

Farming  in  a  broad  way,  to  be  successful,  must 
be  built  upon  the  legumes.  The  tiller  of  the  soil 
must  become  a  legume  farmer.  It  matters  not 
what  line  of  farming  you  pursue,  whether  you  grow 
crops  as  cash  crops  or  live  stock  for  the  money 
income,  the  farming  lands  must  be  productive  and 
more  than  average  yields  obtained  if  you  are  to  go 
far  in  your  enterprise.  With  poor  crops  there  will 
be  poor  stock ;  or  if  the  crops  are  sold  and  they  be 
poor,  the  money  income  will  be  small. 

From  what  has  been  said,  it  is  evident  that  to 
grow  crops  successfully  the  lands  must  be  fertile; 
they  must  contain  much  humus;  they  must  be  in 
proper  physical  condition  to  rid  themselves  of  ex- 
cessive water  or  to  hold  enough  for  seasons  of 
drouth  and  there  must  be  the  elements  of  plant 
food  in  abundance.  Of  the  elements  of  plant  food 
those  most  frequently  lacking  are  nitrogen,  phos- 
phorus and  potassium.  The  phosphorus  and  potas- 
sium being  minerals  they  must  come  from  the  soil 
or  from  fertilizers  artificially  applied.  The  same 
is  true  of  nitrogen,  but  in  this  case  the  farmer  has 
an  advantage  because  he  can  grow  his  nitrogen ; 
the  legumes  will  store  it  in  the  soil.  The  free  nitro- 
gen of  the  air,  you  know,  is  not  available  plant  food, 
yet  the  greater  part  of  the  air  is  nitrogen.  No 
agricultural  plant  of  itself  can  secure  this  air  ele- 
ment— not  a  wee  bit  of  it. 

The  secret  about  the  legumes  was  revealed  about 
1886  when  Hellriegel  and  Wilfarth  showed  the  con- 
nection that  bacteria  have  to  nitrogen  addition  to 
the  soil.  This  secret  is  concerned  with  the  root 
tubercles  that  are  to  be  found  on  the  roots  of  the 


6O  FARM   CROPS 

legumes.  The  clovers,  cowpeas,  vetches  and  alfalfa 
are  all  legumes.  The  tubercles  are  little,  knotted, 
wartlike  growths  on  the  roots  of  these  plants,  and 
are  caused  by  bacteria  or  germs  as  they  are  some- 
times called.  Instead  of  living  in  nests  in  trees  like 
birds,  or  in  the  ground  like  moles  or  worms,  these 
tiny  germs,  so  small  you  can't  see  them  with  a 
microscope,  make  their  homes  in  the  roots  of  these 
plants.  Nestling  snugly  together  they  live,  grow 
and  multiply  in  their  sunless  homes. 

Through  their  activity  the  soil  is  enriched  by  the 
addition  of  much  nitrogen  from  the  air.  Just  as 
bees  gather  honey  from  the  flowers  and  carry  it  to 
the  hives  where  they  are  prepared  for  it  for  their 
long  future  use  and  for  the  use  of  others,  so  do 
these  root  tubercles  gather  nitrogen  in  the  air  and 
fix  it  in  their  root  homes  where  it  can  be  used  by 
other  crops.  Just  as  soon  as  the  roots  of  legumin- 
ous plants  begin  to  push  down  into  the  soil  the 
bacteria  or  germs  that  make  the  tubercles  begin  to 
build  their  homes  in  the  roots,  and  in  so  doing  they 
add  nitrogen  to  the  soil. 

You  now  see  the  importance  of  growing  such 
crops  as  peas  and  clover  on  your  land,  for  by  their 
aid  you  can  constantly  add  plant  food  to  the  soil. 
Now  this  much  needed  nitrogen  is  the  most  costly 
part  of  the  fertilizers  that  farmers  buy  every  year. 
If  every  farmer,  then,  would  grow  these  tubercle- 
bearing  crops  he  would  readily  add  to  the  richness 
of  his  land,  and  at  the  same  time  would  also  escape 
the  necessity  of  buying  so  much  expensive  fer- 
tilizer. 

One  important  thing  about  getting  nitrogen 
through  the  legumes  is  to  have  the  soil  in  good 
condition.  The  farmer  must  not  only  be  able  to 


WHAT  FORAGE  CROPS  ARE  BEST  6l 

induce  bacteria  to  visit  his  lands  and  to  work  there 
in  conjunction  with  the  legumes,  but  he  must  make 
the  new  homes  so  comfortable  and  satisfactory 
that  they  will  be  willing  to  stay.  You  can  even 
scatter  them  over  your  lands,  but  if  the  soil  is  sour 
and  disagreeable  they  will  die.  A  soil  that  is  filled 
with  stagnant  water  is  not  good  for  them,  and  soils 
that  are  hard,  compact  and  dead  do  not  attract  them. 
And  then,  the  same  legume  will  not  do  for  all  crops. 
Clover  bacteria  have  no  liking  for  alfalfa  or  cowpea 
roots,  nor  have  the  cowpea  bacteria  any  liking  for 
the  clover  or  alfalfa  roots. 

If  you  have  been  growing  clover  year  after  year 
and  have  not  admitted  any  alfalfa  bacteria  you  will 
likely  fail  if  you  attempt  to  grow  alfalfa  unless  the 
land  is  inoculated  with  this  special  kind  of  bacteria. 
This  means  that  to  grow  different  legumes  the 
bacteria  associated  with  each  particular  legume 
must  be  secured.  This  calls  for  inoculation  of  the 
land,  and  even  after  the  land  has  been  inoculated 
the  bacteria  may  not  be  thoroughly  acclimated 
during  the  first  year.  When  trying  a  legume 
for  the  first  time  you  must  give  it  a  good 
chance.  If  it  fails  to  meet  your  expectation,  do 
not  despair.  Refrain  from  blaming  the  legume, 
and  do  not  blame  the  bacteria.  Just  repeat  the  ex- 
periment on  the  same  land;  give  both  time  to  join 
hands,  to  become  acquainted,  to  adjust  their  char- 
acters to  suit  each  other's  peculiarities ;  and  be  par- 
ticular also  to  give  the  bacteria  time  to  increase  and 
to  multiply  and  to  fill  the  land  with  their  kind — 
then  the  work  will  be  done  with  effectiveness  and  to 
your  profit  and  advantage. 

Three  ways  of  introducing  bacteria  to  the  soil 
are  as  follows:  By  introducing  the  soil  from  a 


62  FARM   CROPS 

field  known  to  contain  the  desired  bacteria  to  the 
field  where  a  crop  is  to  be  planted ;  by  soaking  seed 
in  water  in  which  soil  from  a  field  where  the  legume 
has  been  successfully  grown  has  been  stored ;  by 
means  of  pure  cultures  and  of  specific  organisms 
suited  to  the  legume. 

If  soil  be  used  it  should  be  taken  from  some  field 
that  is  free  of  undesirable  weeds.  In  getting  the 
soil  it  is  best  to  go  down  where  the  roots  grow; 
somewhere  between  2  and  6  inches  from  the  sur- 
face. This  can  be  scattered  directly  over  a  field 
or  it  may  be  mixed  with  the  seed.  Anywhere  from 
200  to  500  pounds  to  the  acre  will  do.  If  the  field 
be  in  good  condition,  a  small  quantity  will  leaven 
the  entire  mass.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the  soil  is 
bad  physically,  a  larger  quantity  may  be  better. 
In  any  case  get  this  material  well  distributed. 

The  pure  cultures  have  been  worked  out  success- 
fully and  are  now  available.  In  selecting  legumes 
the  nature  of  the  soil  should  be  considered.  Sandy 
soils  are  not  attractive  to  clover.  Cowpeas  and  soy 
beans  will  grow  in  these  sandy  soils  very  satisfac- 
torily. Give  the  sandy  soils  over  to  these  crops 
and  save  the  clover  for  the  more  loamy  areas.  So, 
too,  if  you  want  a  permanent  legume,  let  clover  or 
alfalfa  be  selected.  In  inoculating  the  land  you 
can  always  be  sure  that  inoculation  will  be  desir- 
able if  a  small  amount  of  humus  is  in  the  soil,  if 
the  previously  grown  legumes  lack  nodules  or  if  the 
legume  is  used  for  the  first  time.  Inoculation  will 
help  when  crops  grow  poorly  although  some  nodules 
are  present.  Inoculation  is  never  needed  when 
there  is  already  an  abundance  of  nodules  to  be 
found  on  the  plants,  or  when  the  soil  is  already 
supplied  abundantly  with  nitrogen. 


CHAPTER  VII 

Growing  Crops  for  Succulence 

Farm  stock  relish  succulent  feeds.  They  give 
the  best  account  of  themselves  when  abundantly 
supplied  with  pastures  or  roots  or  green  crops. 
This  is  true,  not  only  of  cattle,  but  of  hogs,  sheep, 
swine  and  poultry.  Animal  life  has  been  so  long 
adjusted  to  succulence  and  vegetable  juices  that  to 
withhold  these  for  any  length  of  time  is  to  invite 
loss  along  all  lines  of  production ;  nor  do  animals 
thrive  so  well  when  these  are  withheld.  When 
spring  comes  with  its  rejuvenating  influences  mani- 
fested in  all  directions,  farm  stock  eagerly  leave 
their  dry  foods,  however  rich  in  nutrition  they  may 
be,  and  revel  in  the  green  grasses  along  the  road- 
side or  in  the  pasture  field.  You  are  familiar  with 
the  result — better  quality,  more  thrifty  growth, 
more  meat,  more  milk. 

Taking  the  year  all  around,  good  pastures  are  not 
available  for  any  great  length  of  time ;  hence  where 
well-bred  farm  animals  are  appreciated,  an  im- 
portant problem  in  farm  management  arises  as  to 
the  best  method  of  extending  the  pasture  season 
as  long  as  possible.  Succulent  food  may  be  pro- 
vided by  pasture,  soiling  crops,  silage  and  root 
crops.  They  may  be  just  a  bit  inferior  to  May  and 
June  grazing,  but  as  substitutes  they  satisfactorily 
fill  the  bill.  Good  silage,  after  all,  is  but  slightly 
inferior  to  green  corn.  Soiling  crops  are  next  best 
to  grasses,  and  roots  for  fall  and  winter  are  not  to 
be  despised. 

63 


64  FARM  CROPS 

GOOD  PASTURES  ARE  ALWAYS  POPULAR 

The  testimony  of  dairymen  is  undeniably  and 
emphatically  in  favor  of  silage,  soiling  crops  and 
similar  feeds  to  take  the  place  of  pasture,  because 
they  keep  the  milk  yield  constant.  Some  even 
claim  that  these  feeds  are  in  every  way  equal  to 
rich  pastures.  Where  lands  are  high  in  value  and 
limited  in  quantity,  the  growing  soiling  crops  often 
displace  the  pasture  system.  Some  who  follow 
the  practice  claim  that  the  plan  is  even  more  satis- 
factory and  far  less  costly.  And  roots,  even  for 
the  dairy,  but  especially  for  all  breeding  stock,  are 
indispensable.  Horses  without  carrots,  sheep  with- 
out turnips;  Hamlet  without  the  ghost! 

Pastures  will,  no  doubt,  long  remain  important 
in  all  sections  where  live  stock  are  grown.  Though 
it  is  true  that  the  pasture  system  calls  for  at  least 
twice  the  number  of  acres  that  are  necessary  where 
the  soiling  system  is  followed,  it  must  be  remem- 
bered that  with  pastures  less  labor  is  required,  less 
attention  is  needed  for  looking  after  the  stock,  and 
the  items  of  detail,  incidental  to  soiling,  do  not 
arise.  For  these  reasons  permanent  pastures  are  to 
be  desired ;  in  fact,  they  will  be  increased  and  made 
better.  Where  lands  are  exceptionally  high  in 
value,  the  reason  for  the  soiling  system  becomes 
manifest  at  once ;  but  where  lands  are  cheap,  there 
is  no  reason  why  the  pasture  should  not  be  em- 
ployed in  the  cheap  production  of  pork  or  beef,  or 
why  it  should  not  enter  very  largely  into  the  pro- 
duction of  dairy  products. 

I  believe  in  permanent  pastures,  but  I  believe  in 
good  pastures.  They  are  worthy  of  more  attention 
than  they  have  received.  If  they  have  not  done 


GROWING   CROPS   FOR  SUCCULENCE  65 

their  work  well,  it  is  because  their  owners  have 
given  them  too  little  attention.  To  merit  praise 
they  must  give  much  grazing  and  constant  graz- 
ing; all  of  which  applies  to  the  permanent  pasture. 
The  temporary  pasture  occurs  only  as  a  feature  of 
short  rotations,  as  when  grain  crops  are  raised. 
It  is  really  an  incident  rather  than  a  first  considera- 
tion; being  such,  you  do  not  expect  the  highest 
development  of  grass  and  turf,  both  of  which  are 
basic  features  of  the  permanent  pasture. 


RAPE  FOR  SUPPLEMENTING  PASTURES 

On  the  other  hand,  the  poor  pasture  field  may  be 
supported  by  the  use  of  supplementary  crops,  fore- 
most among  which  is  rape — an  admirable  food  for 
sheep  and  swine  and  valuable  for  cattle  also.  Rape 
is  a  sort  of  cabbage,  and  instead  of  storing  its 
nutriment  in  the  head  as  the  cabbage  does,  the  rape 
plant  distributes  its  nutriment  throughout  the 
leaves.  It  fancies  most  the  moist,  cool  places  and 
a  rather  fertile  soil.  When  so  favored  it  really 
gives  a  very  large  amount  of  food.  It  is  sufficiently 
rich  in  nutriment  to  maintain  all  body  needs,  but  is 
not  quite  able  of  itself  to  make  large  gains  of  growth 
or  fat.  When  supplemented  with  grain,  it  becomes 
a  very  satisfactory  green  fodder  crop. 

You  can  sow  rape  any  time  between  March  and 
July,  either  broadcast  or  in  drills  3  feet  apart,  using 
3  or  4  pounds  of  seed  an  acre  and  slightly  cover- 
ing it.  When  grazed  down,  remove  your  stock 
and  allow  time  enough  for  a  second  crop. 

Within  recent  years  the  use  of  soiling  crops  has 
increased,  The  unsatisfactory  results  from  pas- 


66 


FARM   CROPS 


tures  during  the  late  summer  months,  especially 
for  dairy  cows,  have  given  popularity  to 
the  soiling  system.  Employed  in  connection  with 
the  silo,  it  is  possible  to  get  the  effect  of  green 
crops  throughout  the  year. 
Briefly,  the  plan  means  that 
instead  of  depending  upon 
pastures,  fodder  is  cut  green 
and  fed  to  cattle  in  the  feed 
lot  or  in  the  stable,  thus 
doing  away  with  fences  and 
extensive  areas,  such  as  are 
necessary  with  pastures. 
There  is  a  saving,  because 
no  part  of  the  forage  is 
tramped  upon  nor  destroyed 
by  animals  running  at  large 
over  the  fields.  The  small 
area  given  to  soiling  crops 
allows  more  intensive  till- 
age, better  fertilizing  and 
more  thorough  cultivation. 
I  like  the  soiling  system  be- 
cause it  is  extremely  valuable,  even  where  pastures 
are  much  in  use.  Rye,  peas,  oats  and  green  corn 
always  come  in  handy;  and  they  often  bridge  over 
dry  periods  when  pastures  either  are  short  or  are 
dry  and  withered. 


ORCHARD   GRASS  IN 
BLOOM 


SOILING  CROPS  HAVE  A  PLACE 


Starting  with  soiling  crops  in  order  of  their  use, 
we  have  rye  as  the  first  aid.  In  the  South  it  is 
ready  in  March  and  in  the  North  in  April.  It 


GROWING   CROPS   FOR  SUCCULENCE  67 

should  be  seeded  in  August  or  September  in  the 
North  and  in  September  or  October  in  the  South. 
When  thus  planted  it  is  ready  early  in  the  spring, 
long  before  ordinary  pastures  are  available  or  be- 
fore clover  or  wheat  can  be  used. 

Alfalfa  Ranks  Best. — I  like  alfalfa  as  a  soiling 
crop;  in  fact,  it  is  by  all  odds  the  best.  If  you 
have  learned  the  secret  of  growing  alfalfa  you  have 
a  treasure  indeed,  so  valuable  as  to  be  almost  im- 
possible of  estimation.  If  alfalfa  has  not  blest  you 
as  yet,  then  oats  and  peas,  to  be  followed  by  cow- 
peas,  sorghum,  corn  and  other  green  crops,  should 
be  accorded  places  in  the  list.  The  oats  and  peas 
should  go  in  early;  cover  the  peas  3  or  4  inches 
deep,  one  bushel  to  the  acre ;  the  oats  a  less  depth 
and  about  2  bushels  to  the  acre.  Inasmuch  as 
oats  fancy  the  cool  seasons  rather  than  the  warm 
weather,  the  earlier  they  are  seeded  in  the  spring 
the  better.  Field  peas  also  withstand  a  surpris- 
ingly large  amount  of  cold  weather.  Cowpeas  and 
sorghum  are  warm  weather  crops  and  should  go  in 
after  corn ;  any  time,  say,  between  May  25  and 
July  I. 

Green  Corn  for  Summer. — I  am  a  great  believer 
in  corn  for  all  farm  purposes  and  depend  upon  it 
constantly  as  a  soiling  crop  for  July  and  August — 
the  dry  seasons — even  when  not  particularly  in- 
terested in  milk.  I  find  it  is  always  advisable  to 
have  a  couple  or  more  acres  of  corn  as  a  reserve 
crop  for  late  summer  feeding.  Every  animal  on 
the  farm  relishes  a  few  stalks  of  green  corn  at  night 
or  morning  when  the  pastures  are  dry  and  hot. 

Suppose  you  devote  two  or  three  acres  particu- 
larly adapted  to  early  corn  planting  just  as  early 
as  you  can.  The  soil  may  be  more  sandy  and 


68  FARM    CROPS 

hence  warmer;  it  may  be  higher  than  the  rest  of 
the  farm,  hence  drier.  After  being  well  tilled  and 
fertilized,  put  in  the  corn.  Plant  the  corn  in  rows 
3/^  to  4  feet  apart,  dropping  grains  3  or  4  inches 
apart  in  the  rows.  Give  this  corn  the  same  cul- 
tivation and  care  as  later  you  will  give  to  your 
regular  crop.  In  any  section,  by  the  latter  part  of 
June  or  early  in  July  you  will  have  on  hand  a  lot 
of  green  forage  to  help  along  in  case  your  pastures 
go  back  on  you. 

If  you  do  not  need  this  green  fodder  in  early 
summer,  just  let  it  alone ;  it  will  continue  its  grow- 
ing and  will  make  a  still  heavier  growth.  With  it 
at  hand  you  need  have  no  fear  of  a  shrinkage  in 
milk,  because  a  few  armfuls  of  this  green  corn  as 
a  feed,  used  as  a  supplement  to  the  pasture  or 
silage  or  other  food,  will  complete  the  ration  and 
supply  your  stock  with  just  what  is  needed.  The 
patch  of  corn,  its  size  depending  upon  the  number 
of  animals  you  have,  will  carry  you  until  the  silage 
crop  is  ready,  or  if  you  do  not  have  the  silo,  carry 
you  into  the  fall  season,  when  your  winter  plans 
for  feeding  will  handle  the  case. 

ROOT  CROPS  NOT  TO  BE  LEFT  OUT 

The  farmer  pays  little  or  no  attention  to  roots, 
but  they  are  worthy  of  some  attention,  for  they 
stand  high  as  succulent  and  supplementary  feeds. 
You  cannot  value  roots  solely  by  the  nutriment 
they  contain.  They  aid  in  digestion  and  assimila- 
tion of  dry  foods  and  contribute  to  the  healthful- 
ness  of  all  animals  so  fortunate  as  to  get  them.  If 
fruits  are  of  value,  if  not  a  necessity,  to  men,  then 


GROWING   CROPS   FOR  SUCCULENCE  69 

roots  and  grasses  have  a  place  in  feeding  farm 
animals. 

Carrots. — These  may  be  fed  to  horses  and  sheep, 
sugar  beets  and  turnips  to  dry  cattle  and  lambs,  and 
dairy  cattle  and  hogs  relish  them  all.  To  withhold 
succulence,  Nature's  great  provision  of  thrift  and 
health,  is  to  lessen  profits.  Ask  the  man  who  uses 
these  crops;  the  horse  breeder  where  carrots  are 
known ;  the  shepherd  who  knows  his  sheep  and 
succeeds  with  them;  the  cattle  breeder  who  has 
learned  of  the  value  of  roots  for  health  and  appetite. 
The  testimony  as  given  is  generally  in  favor  of  roots 
or  of  succulent  substitutes. 

Carrots  are  slightly  harder  to  grow  than  beets,  but 
they  are  the  best  feed.  Sow  the  seed  in  rows  about 
2^2  feet  apart.  The  rows  should  be  ridged  slightly, 
as  this  facilitates  their  culture.  It  is  better,  per- 
haps, to  sow  rather  thickly,  so  as  to  insure  a  good 
stand.  When  the  young  plants  are  a  few  inches 
high,  harrow  the  ground  with  a  light  harrow  for 
weed  destruction  and  for  thinning  purposes.  It 
will  require  only  a  hasty  going  over  to  put  the 
carrot  patch  in  shape  to  destroy  weeds  and 
leave  the  plants  6  to  8  inches  apart.  A  horse  cul- 
tivator will  complete  the  work.  The  large  stock 
varieties  are,  of  course,  to  be  preferred  to  the  fine 
grained — the  garden  kind. 

Turnips  are  cultivated  in  the  same  way,  but  they 
come  later  in  the  season.  From  June  to  Septem- 
ber will  be  range  sufficient  for  your  climate  and 
environment.  The  Swede  variety  should  be 
selected.  Turnips  may  be  sown  broadcast,  but  for 
large  yields  the  row  method  is  preferred.  Mangels 
are  grown  with  the  least  difficulty,  but  they  are  not 
so  good  as  carrots  or  turnips.  Sow  them  in  the 


FARM    CROPS 


spring  rather  thickly,  and  then  thin,  farther  apart 
than  turnips.  For  sheep,  roots  are  almost  indis- 
.pensable. 

CORN  THE  BEST  SILAGE  CROP 

Silage   is   pre-eminently  adapted  to   dairy  cows, 
and   is  frequently  used   for  sheep  and  other  farm 

animals.  In  planning  a 
silo  figure  on  remov- 
ing at  least  1^2  to  2 
inches  of  the  silage 
surface  each  day  in 
order  to  prevent  loss 
from  spoiling.  From  30 
to  35  pounds  of  silage 
a  day,  combined  with 
hay  and  grain,  is  con- 
sidered by  most  dairy- 
men as  a  satisfactory 
ration  for  dairy  cows. 
Essentials  of  a  Good 

YELLOW  GLOBE   MANGEL  c.,  -p..  ., 

The   succulent   nature   of  man-  SflO.— First,   it   must  be 

gels  makes  them  of  use  primarily  made     deep      in       Order 
for   feeding    to    cows.      They    are     t  r 

best   used   in   furnishing   a   pala-   that     the       Silage       may 
table  succulent  food  in  winter  to  ,        ,  r  «< 

supplement     the     dry^  hays  ^and  p  a  C  K     down     SOlldly. 

There  should  be  a 
depth  of  at  least  24 
feet.  Satisfactory  silos,  however,  may  be  built 
with  a  depth  of  only  20  feet  or  even  less.  Second, 
the  walls  should  be  made  vertical  and  perfectly 
smooth,  so  the  silage  may  rest  evenly  on  all  sides. 
There  should  be  as  few  corners  as  possible,  since 
the  greatest  loss  occurs  in  spoiling  in  corners. 
Third,  square,  wooden  silos  should  have  the  cor- 


grains,  thus  keeping  the  stock  in 
good  appetite  and  form. 


GROWING   CROPS   FOR   SUCCULENCE  71 

ners  boarded  across,  and  the  inside  sheathing 
should  run  perpendicular  at  the  bottom.  Fourth, 
the  inside  walls  of  stone,  brick  or  cement  silos 
should  have  a  final  dressing  of  portland  cement. 
Fifth,  silos  should  be  located  where  it  will  be  most 
convenient  to  feed  from. 

Calculating  Size  of  Silo. — The  size  of  the  silo  to 
build  may  be  determined  in  any  particular  case 
from  the  following  data:  A  cubic  foot  of  well- 
packed  silage  will  weigh  on  the  average  between  35 
and  40  pounds,  and  this  is  about  the  amount  that 
should  be  fed  daily  to  a  dairy  cow.  If  it  is  neces- 
sary to  feed  cows  for  six  months,  or  160  days,  one 
cow  will  consume  180  cubic  feet,  or  about  3*^2  tons 
of  silage.  A  herd  of  ten  cows  would  consume  35 
tons.  However,  there  is  always  some  loss  by  spoil- 
ing and  waste,  so  it  would  be  better  to  figure  on 
about  40  tons. 

One  acre  of  corn  should  yield  10  to  15  tons  of 
silage  to  the  acre.  The  number  of  tons  of  silage 
that  a  square  or  rectangular  silo  will  hold  may  be 
determined  roughly  by  multiplying  the  length, 
width  and  depth  of  the  silo  in  feet,  and  dividing 
by  50,  the  approximate  number  of  cubic  feet  in  a 
ton  of  silage.  A  round  silo  15  feet  in  diameter 
and  20  feet  deep  will  hold  about  60  tons.  The 
same  silo  25  feet  deep  will  hold  80  tons.  A  round 
silo  20  feet  in  diameter  and  25  feet  deep  will  hold  a 
little  more  than  140  tons. 

FILLING    THE    SILO 

Nowadays  the  corn  binder  is  desirable  for  cutting 
silage  corn.  It  saves  the  expense  of  several  men 
and  makes  loading  and  unloading  more  economical 


72  FARM    CROPS 

and  less  fatiguing  and  irksome.  One  man  with  a 
low  wagon  and  rack  can  in  a  few  minutes  secure 
his  load,  all  that  a  two  or  three-horse  team  can 
draw.  It  is  most  convenient  to  take  two  or  three 
rows  at  a  time.  It  is  necessary,  therefore,  that  the 
binder  be  at  work  for  some  time  in  order  that  the 
hauling  and  cutting  crews  may  not  be  delayed  for 
want  of  corn. 

The  work  in  the  silo,  however,  is  the  most  im- 
portant of  all  operations  connected  with  silage 
making.  Really  good  silage  depends  largely  upon 
the  faithfulness,  constant  tramping  and  the  "  ever- 
lastingly at  it "  of  the  man  in  the  silo.  Let  him 
shirk,  or  do  his  work  poorly,  and  you  will  get  less 
corn  in  the  silo  and  less  quality  in  the  product. 
Many  of  the  criticisms  directed  against  the  silo 
belong,  not  to  it,  but  to  the  man  within,  who  was 
either  lazy  and  irresponsible,  or  who  did  not  know 
what  was  expected  of  him  or  how  to  do  what  was 
required  of  him. 

This  part  of  silage  making  is  of  such  great  im- 
portance that  I  have  found  it  necessary  to  look 
carefully  after  it  myself.  If  your  silage  has  been 
of  off  quality  in  the  past,  go  into  the  silo  yourself 
next  year  and  put  the  "  pick-up "  help  at  some 
other  kind  of  work. 

To  thoroughly  and  continually  pack  the  silage 
as  fast  as  it  falls  into  the  silo  and  to  pitch  and 
tramp  it  all  about  the  outer  edges  is  the  secret  of 
making  good  silage.  Look  after  the  packing  well 
at  the  outside,  then  the  center  will  take  care  of 
itself.  It  is  this  thorough  packing  that  rids  the 
silo  of  air  spaces  around  which  decay  later  is  found 
to  have  taken  place. 

It  is  more  difficult  to  pack  the  square  silo.   Hence 


GROWING   CROPS   FOR  SUCCULENCE  73 

the  least  carelessness  here  represents  some  loss  in 
winter.  In  doing  effective  packing,  keep  the  outer 
edges  a  little  higher  than  the  center,  but  keep 
tramping  and  packing  all  the  time.  This  will  force 
the  air  out  as  the  rilling  process  goes  on. 

PRESERVING  ROOT  CROPS  IN  PITS 

Many,  in  their  desire  to  have  roots  safely  stored 
for  winter,  overdo  the  matter.  They  like  to  make 
as  short  a  job  of  it  as  possible,  and  as  soon  as  the 
crop  can  be  dug,  the  roots  are  placed  in  a  heap, 
covered  with  straw  and  then  enough  earth  is  put 
on  them  to  prevent  freezing  in  the  severest  winter 
weather.  This  is  a  great  mistake,  and  many  pits 
are  lost  because  of  this  overprotection.  It  is  very 
desirable  to  avoid  storing  large  quantities  of  roots 
in  the  cellars  of  dwelling  houses.  Consequently, 
where  no  separate  storage  place  is  available,  pitting 
outside  is  the  best  plan. 

Gather  the  roots  after  they  have  been  dug  and 
sufficient  time  has  elapsed  to  allow  them  to  dry  off. 
Place  in  oblong  heaps  in  a  high  spot  in  the  field  so 
that  good  drainage  is  possible,  cover  with  straw 
and  a  few  inches  of  earth  so  that  moderate  frost 
and  the  slight  freeze  of  early  winter  will  not  injure 
the  roots,  and  dig  a  trench  around  the  base  of  the  pit 
so  that  water  will  not  stand.  Where  the  water  rises 
near  the  surface  during  the  wet  period,  it  is  best 
to  place  the  roots  on  the  top  of  the  ground,  as  sug- 
gested above.  However,  if  there  is  good  drainage 
there  is  no  reason  why  an  excavation  cannot  be 
made  6  feet  wide  and  about  a  foot  deep,  and  as  long 
as  necessary.  Begin  by  carefully  stacking  the  roots, 
filling  the  first  2  feet  of  the  trench.  This  will  form 


74  FARM   CROPS 

the  first  section ;  leave  a  space  of  about  6  inches 
then  put  in  another  section,  and  so  on.  Round  up 
the  top,  fill  the  6  inches  of  space  between  the  heaps 
with  straw  and  cover  the  whole  with  straw  and  18 
or  more  inches  of  soil. 

This  plan  requires  much  less  work  in  covering 
and  is  in  reality  a  series  of  small  pits,  each  distinct. 
The  tubers  keep  better  in  this  way,  and  as  only  one 
section  at  a  time  need  be  opened  there  is  less  lia- 
bility to  waste  than  if  the  pit  were  a  large  one  con- 
taining the  entire  crop.  In  some  sections  of  the 
country  the  covering  or  soil  must  be  2  or  3  feet 
deep  to  prevent  freezing. 


CHAPTER  VIII 

The  Silo,  Silage  and  Soiling  Crops 

The  silo  does  for  live  stock  what  fruit  cans  and 
fruit  jars  do  for  men.  One  knows  a  tomato  will 
quickly  decay  if  not  put  in  the  fruit  jar  where  it 
can  be  sealed  so  as  to  prevent  the  entrance  of  bac- 
teria. The  silo  is  a  large  pit  that  holds  cut-up 
corn  or  other  forage  and  keeps  it  succulent  and 
prevents  the  maturity  of  the  plant  cells. 

The  object  of  the  silo  is  to  keep  the  forage  as 
near  the  green  state  as  possible.  To  this  fact  lies 
the  noted  value  of  silage.  As  we  like  during  win- 
ter an  apple  that  has  been  stored  away  in  the 
cellar  in  preference  to  a  dried  one,  so  live  stock 
relish,  in  the  same  degree,  the  corn  plant  if  kept 
as  nearly  in  the  green  state  as  possible.  No  matter 
how  nutritive  a  feeding  stuff  is,  if  the  animal  does 
not  like  it,  it  usually  is  a  failure  as  a  milk  or  meat 
producer.  Of  course,  no  one  claims  that  silage 
contains  greater  feeding  value  than  the  cured 
product.  A  silo  has  nothing  about  it  to  make  more 
protein  or  carbohydrates  or  fat.  But  the  juice  is 
there,  the  flavor  is  there,  as  is  also  the  effect  of 
freshness  and  greenness. 

ECONOMY  IN  SILAGE 

There  is  great  economy  in  silage  in  the  fact 
that  a  larger  part  of  the  product  is  eaten.  If  the 
dry  corn  plant  is  fed,  for  instance,  the  ear  and  leaves 
are  the  only  parts  consumed.  Fully  half  the  feed- 

75 


76 


FARM    CROPS 


ing  value  is  lost.  If,  however,  this  be  put  in  the 
silo,  every  particle  is  eaten.  The  feeding  value 
is  really  doubled.  The  silo  then  assists  the  feeder 
in  taking  care  of  a  larger  number  of  animals  from 


~S*V    01 


A  GOOD   SILO 

The  silo  is  not  only  a  cheap  means  for  storing  food,  but 
it  keeps  whatever  is  placed  in  it  fresh  and  succulent  and  ap- 
petizing. Where  high-grade  animals  are  kept,  the  silo  is 
desirable.  Thousands  of  silos  are  added  to  the  equipment  of 
farms  each  year. 

a  given  area  than  otherwise  would  be  possible  if 
only  the  dry  product  were  fed. 

Another  point  in  economy  lies  in  the  storage  of 
the   feeding  stuff.     A   silo   is   cheaply   constructed 


THE   SILO,   SILAGE  AND   SOILING  CROPS 


77 


and  holds  an  immense  quantity  of  forage  that  is 
always  at  hand  where  feeding  is  to  be  done.  Thus 
the  labor  for  winter  feeding  is  materially  lessened. 
Wherever  high-class  beef  animals  are  raised  or 
profitable  dairying  is  carried  on,  there  the  silo  is 
found  and  its  highest  and  best  use  employed. 

CAPACITY    OF   SILOS 

The  following  table,  by  King,  gives  the  capacity 
of  round  silos  at  different  depths  and  with  varying 
inside  diameters: 


FEET 
.DEPTH 

INSIDE  DIAMETER  IN  FEED 

15 

18 

20 

25 

20 

58.8 

84.7 

104.6 

163.4 

21 

62.9 

90.6 

111.8 

174.7 

22 

67.4 

96.8 

119.6 

186.8 

23 

71.7 

103.3 

127.5 

199.3 

24 

76.1 

109.6 

135.3 

211.5 

25 

80.6 

116.1 

143.3 

223.9 

26 

85.5 

123.0 

151.9 

237.4 

27 

90.2 

129.8 

100.3 

250.5 

28 

95.0 

136.8 

168.9 

263.9 

29 

99.9 

143.9 

177.6 

277.6 

30 

05.0 

151.1 

186.6 

291.6 

31 

109.8 

158.2 

195.6 

305.1 

32 

115.1 

165.7 

204.6 

319.6 

7§  FARM    CROPS 

FEEDING  SILAGE 

The  quantity  of  silage  fed  depends  somewhat  on 
the  kind  of  forage  used.  Silage  made  of  clover, 
cowpeas  or  alfalfa  contains  more  protein  than  one 
made  of  corn.  If  either  of  the  former  be  used,  from 
15  to  20  pounds  will  be  sufficient  for  a  daily  feed. 
On  the  other  hand,  if  corn  is  used,  from  25  to  50 
pounds  can  be  fed,  30  to  40  pounds  being  a  good 
average.  Silage  can  be  fed  once  or  twice  each  day. 
If  a  small  quantity  is  used  in  the  daily  ration,  the 
feeder  should  give  silage  but  once;  a  larger  quan- 
tity will  require  two  feedings. 

The  feeding  should  be  regular,  that  is,  every  day, 
so  as  to  keep  the  top  of  the  silo  fed  off  to  keep  from 
spoiling.  One  or  2  inches  from  the  whole  of  the 
top  will  prevent  any  decay.  Feeding  in  the  stall 
should  be  done  just  after  milking,  otherwise  the 
odor  may  be  observed  in  the  milk.  The  grain  can 
be  fed  either  in  connection  with  or  just  before  feed- 
ing the  silage. 

CROPS  FOR  SILAGE 

There  are  only  a  few  crops  that  can  be  success- 
fully used  for  silage.  The  great  silo  crop  is  corn; 
and  so  much  so  that  whenever  silo  is  spoken  one 
invariably  thinks  of  corn  silage.  Clover  is  also 
ensiled  with  a  fair  degree  of  success.  Peas  mixed 
with  corn  are  also  good,  and  alfalfa  to  some  extent. 
Any  crop  having  a  hollow  stem  generally  makes 
poor  silage  because  of  the  air  stored  with  the  crop. 
There  is  also  little  reason  for  using  crops  that  are 
easily  cured  in  the  field,  like  the  grasses  and  hays. 


THE   SILO,   SILAGE  AND   SOILING  CROPS 


79 


DIGESTIBLE  NUTRIENTS   IN   IMPORTANT 
SILAGE    CROPS 


Dry  Matter 

DIGESTIBLl 

5  NUTRIENTS 

IN   100  LBS. 

Feeding  Stuff 

Corn  silage 

in  100  pounds 

20.9 

Protein 
0.9 

Carbohydrates 

11.3 

Fat 
0.7 

Clover  

28.0 

2.0 

13.5 

1.0 

Alfalfa 

27.5 

3.0 

8.5 

1.9 

Cowpea 

20.7 

1.5 

8.6 

0.9 

Soja  Bean 

25.8 

2.7 

8.7 

1.3 

SOILING   CROPS 

The  production  of  green  crops  to  supplement 
summer  pasture  is  more  or  less  a  necessity  for  the 
highest  success  in  dairying.  The  milk  flow  cannot 
be  maintained  upon  withered  or  dry  pastures.  The 
winter  feeding  of  dairy  cows  has  been  made  a 
success  by  the  use  of  the  silo.  But  ordinarily 
silage  is  used  up  by  the  end  of  winter  and  none 
is  left  for  feed  during  the  summer.  Perhaps  this 
is  better  after  all;  a  change  in  the  feed  of  dairy 
cows  is  as  necessary  as  for  ourselves.  It  is  true 
also  that  with  spring  come  good,  fresh  pastures, 
green,  succulent  and  nutritious.  Where  is  a  better 
place,  then,  for  milch  cows  than  in  such  a  pasture 
field? 

Summer  feeding  would  be  simple  if  the  pastures 
remained  fresh  and  green  until  silage  comes  again. 
We  all  know  that  with  July  and  August  come  also 
the  hot  winds  and  dry  weather,  and  with  them  dry 
pastures  and  marked  decrease  in  milk  flow.  This 


80  FARM   CROPS 

can  be  wholly  remedied  by  soiling  crops,  and  at 
little  expense  to  the  owner.  Where  one  has  pas- 
ture for  spring  and  early  summer  feeding,  the  soil- 
ing problem  is  simple  indeed. 

CORN   THE   BASIS   FOR   SOILING 

No  dairyman  or  feeder  can  get  along  without 
corn.  It  is  the  main  crop  for  the  silo  or  for  soil- 
ing. It  should  be  the  practice  to  plant,  as  early 
as  weather  conditions  permit,  a  small  area  of  corn 
for  soiling  purposes.  One  can  always  select  a 
small  area  that  is  early  ready  for  the  plow,  and  on 
this  manure  should  be  put  and  disked  well  into  the 
soil.  An  application  of  commercial  fertilizer  can 
also  be  added  if  the  soil  is  not  as  rich  as  it  should 
be  for  the  purpose.  Plant  the  corn  when  the  soil 
is  thoroughly  prepared  and  when  you  are  reason- 
ably sure  the  frosts  are  over. 

The  corn  should  be  planted  so  as  to  produce  the 
largest  quantity  of  forage.  For  soiling  purposes 
you  are  not  expecting  ears.  A  thick  seeding  is 
best.  Plant  in  rows  36  to  40  inches  apart  and  a 
grain  every  3  or  4  inches.  Harrow  soon  after 
planting  to  destroy  weeds  which  are  abundant  at 
that  time.  Then  cultivate  frequently  during  the 
rest  of  the  time.  By  the  last  of  June  you  have 
green  corn  ready  for  stock.  If  your  pastures  are 
light,  begin  to  feed  a  little  corn  every  day  and  then 
gradually  increase  as  needed. 

As  the  corn  is  cut  off,  disk  up  the  land  and  fol- 
low with  cowpeas.  This  can  be  done  every  two  or 
three  weeks,  and  a  crop  of  cowpeas  for  soiling  or 
hay  can  be  obtained  the  same  season.  A  year's 


THE   SILO,   SILAGE  AND   SOILING   CROPS  8l 

experience   with  soiling  will  show  the  feeder  the 
great  value  of  this  practice. 

SOILING  TO  TAKE  THE  PLACE  OF 
PASTURE 

Where  soiling  crops  are  to  take  the  place  of  pas- 
ture, preparation  must  be  made  the  previous  year. 
By  this  is  meant  a  crop  must  be  sown  the  previous 
fall  to  furnish  an  early  crop  in  the  spring. 

Rye  is  better  for  this  than  any  other  crop.  It 
grows  all  winter  and  shoots  up  early  in  the  spring 
and  is  ready  to  be  fed  before  the  silage  is  well  gone. 
A  small  acreage  of  rye  will  furnish  green  food  for 
a  month.  By  this  time  the  clover  field  is  ready 
for  two  or  four  weeks'  feeding.  Then  you  can  turn 
in  the  feed  lot,  which  should  be  five  or  six  acres  in 
size  for  30  or  40  cattle.  With  a  little  of  the  clover 
hay  that  has  just  been  made  or  some  of  the  holdover 
hay  of  last  year  that  was  provided  for  this  purpose, 
to  be  fed  in  connection  with  the  pasture  in  the  feed 
lot,  you  are  provided  with  green  food  until  the 
early  planted  corn  is  ready  for  the  daily  feeding. 

Nothing  is  lost  by  the  practice  of  soiling.  If 
you  have  too  much  rye,  the  surplus  can  be  cut  and 
put  in  the  silo  and  fed  along  during  the  summer; 
the  surplus  clover  can  be  made  into  hay;  the  same 
can  be  done  with  cowpeas ;  and  any  excess  of  corn 
can  be  put  in  the  silo. 

ROTATION    FOR    SOILING    CROPS 

As  soon  as  the  rye  is  taken  off,  the  rye  land 
should  be  plowed  and  planted  to  corn  and  cowpeas ; 
the  early  cut  corn  should  be  either  seeded  to  cow- 


82  FARM    CROPS 

peas  or  to  crimson  clover,  and  cowpea  land  to  rye. 
This  rotation  gives  soiling  crops,  silage  crops  and 
hay  crops;  a  leguminous  crop  each  year  to  add 
nitrogen  to  the  soil;  and  a  cultivated  crop  each 
rotation  to  kill  out  the  weeds  and  to  change  un- 
available plant  food  into  available  plant  food.  All 
manure  made  by  the  herd  is  added  to  the  soil  either 
in  fall  or  winter,  or  in  both.  A  practice  like  this 
brings  up  the  soil  in  a  very  short  time. 

ADVANTAGES    OF    SOILING 

Smaller  Area  Needed. — Where  pasturing  is  fol- 
lowed, from  two  to  five  acres  are  required  for  fur- 
nishing necessary  feeding  stuffs  for  each  animal  a 
year.  It  is  generally  conceded  by  all  who  have 
followed  soiling  that  three-quarters  to  an  acre  and 
a  half  will  furnish  the  yearly  food  supply  for  a 
mature  animal. 

Fewer  Fences  Needed. — The  only  fences  needed 
with  soiling  is  for  the  feed  lots.  This  is  a  saving 
of  land  where  fences  would  be  put;  a  saving  of 
capital  otherwise  invested  in  fences;  and  a  saving 
in  labor  in  keeping  fences  clean  and  repaired. 

No  Food  Destroyed  by  Tramping. — The  tramp- 
ing of  cattle  over  pasture  lands  not  only  destroys 
considerable  food,  but  it  compacts  the  soil,  es- 
pecially during  wet  weather,  and  greatly  damages 
the  physical  condition  of  the  soil.  As  much  as  a 
third  or  half  of  the  pastures  are  injured  by  tramp- 
ing over  them. 

Less  Acreage  Required. — If  one  lives  near  a 
city  where  lands  are  more  valuable,  the  investment 
in  acres  is  a  matter  of  considerable  importance. 
The  practice  of  soiling  enables  the  dairyman  to  do 


THE   SILO,    SILAGE  AND   SOILING   CROPS  83 

on   half  the  number  of  acres  what   would  be   re- 
quired if  pasturing  were  followed. 

Soil  Improvement  More  Readily  Obtained. — 
Since  one  needs  but  half  the  area  by  following 
soiling  methods,  it  readily  suggests  a  larger  quan- 
tity of  manure  by  this  system.  This  means  farm- 
ing in  an  intensive  way  and  insures  greater  pro- 
ductivity of  land  and  larger  crops  with  each  suc- 
cessive year. 

OBJECTIONS  TO   THE  PRACTICE   OF 
SOILING 

The  one  objection  to  soiling  is  in  the  extra  labor 
in  growing  and  feeding  the  crops.  By  pasturing, 
labor  is  needed  only  in  taking  cattle  to  and  from 
the  pasture  fields.  The  necessary  extra  labor  is,\ 
however,  a  matter  of  small  importance  when  con- 
sidered in  the  light  of  the  many  advantages  of  the 
system. 

Soiling  Best  Adapted  to  Dairying. — While  soil- 
ing is  possible  for  all  classes  of  live  stock,  it  is 
peculiarly  a  system  for  the  dairy  farmer.  The 
food  is  better  because  of  freshness  and  succulence; 
labor  is  always  available;  and  the  greater  profits 
permit  greater  care  and  attention  that  the  highest 
success  may  be  attained. 


CHAPTER  IX 

Every  Farmer  a  Plant  Breeder 

Much  attention  has  been  given  to  the  breeding 
of  animals.  As  a  result  greater  efficiency  has  been 
secured,  even  though  scrub  animals  do  still  exist. 
In  a  general  way,  too,  farm  crops  have  been  im- 
proved. But  the  rules  of  breeding  and  selection 
have  not  been  as  consistently  indulged  in  with 
plants  as  with  domestic  animals.  We  have  rather 
carelessly  selected  our  wheat  and  corn — have 
selected  our  farm  crops  without  any  special  search 
for  the  individuals  that  yield  the  heaviest  or  that 
give  the  most  profitable  returns. 

Seed  selection  has  come  into  the  limelight  in 
recent  years;  with  some  crops  great  progress  has 
been  made.  From  the  crab  apple  has  come  the 
improved  apple;  by  selection  many  classes  and 
varieties  of  apples  today  are  larger,  more  nutritious 
and  more  appetizing.  The  florist  has  taken  some 
of  the  most  common  flowers  and  by  crossing  and 
selecting  has  developed  improved  varieties  of 
superior  usefulness  and  beauty.  He  has  taken 
other  varieties  and  by  cross-fertilization  and  hybrid- 
ization has  established  new  types  and  new  forms 
that  differ  widely  from  the  original  stock.  Today 
these  occupy  places  peculiar  to  themselves. 

Seed  selection  is  nothing  more  than  the  breeding 
and  selecting  of  those  forms  best  adapted  to  their 
environment  and  which,  in  addition,  produce  the 
most  at  harvest  time.  The  propaganda  for  plant 
improvement  seeks  to  give  field  crops  the  same 

84 


EVERY   FARMER  A   PLANT   BREEDER  85 

devotion  that  the  orchard,  the  garden  and  the 
flower  crops  have  had.  The  same  principles  that 
apply  to  animal  breeding  apply  to  plant  breeding. 

THE  KEYNOTE  OF  PLANT  BREEDING 

Patience  and  skill  are  required  in  the  breeding 
of  plants.  You  must  know  what  characters  ought 
to  be  developed  and  what  ones  ought  to  be  sup- 


IM PROVING  COTTON 

The  cotton  fiber  has  been  lengthened  by  continuous  care  in 
selection.  Since  the  length  of  the  fiber  adds  to  its  value, 
selection  in  this  direction  is  vitally  important  and  should  not 
be  neglected  by  any  cotton  grower. 

pressed.  The  common  plan  of  guessing  is  never 
conducive  to  improvement.  The  average  yield  of 
corn  or  wheat  will  be  raised  very  little  indeed  if 
the  crib  or  granary  is  depended  upon  for  seed.  To 
get  the  offspring  of  the  choicest  plants  the  parents 
must  be  observed  as  they  grow  in  the  fields.  Sup- 
pose you  go  into  a  corn  field  about  the  time  the 
field  is  ripening.  You  will  note  many  superior 
individual  plants;  not  only  may  the  plant  itself 
be  superior,  but  the  ear  often  will  show  great 
superiority  over  the  common  lot  of  the  field.  Your 


86 


FARM    CROPS 


own  experience  has  taught  you  that  most  of 
the  corn  plants  are  alike.  A  few,  however,  are 
very  good  and  a  few  are  very  poor.  The  latter 
should,  of  course,  be  rejected  just  as  the  scrub  pig 
or  the  scrub  calf  is  rejected.  Neither  will  the  aver- 
age lot  attract  you;  you  are  not  seeking  the  aver- 

age plants.  Your  aim  is 
to  find  the  best  possible  in 
the  field  ;  those  that  possess 
vigor,  vitality,  strength, 
big  broad  leaves,  and  heavy 
ears.  These  superior  plants 
in  the  corn  field  should  be 
marked;  and  at  harvest 
time  you  will  know  them. 
These  are  to  be  set  apart 
>for  the  next  year's  planting. 
With  wheat  you  should 
do  the  same.  At  harvest 
time  select  the  heads  of 
wheat  that  are  largest  and 
heaviest,  and  that  show 
superiority  over  the  aver- 
age in  the  field.  It  is  these 
heavier,  stronger,  more  per- 
fect ears  and  grains  that 
possess  quality,  good  blood. 
By  using  them  for  seed 
the  entire  crop  is  greatly 
increased. 

six  EARS  TO  THE  STALK       And    the    same    plan    is 
when  corn  is  bred  to  pro-   open  to  the  cotton  farmer. 
5335  wfn   In  going  over  the  field  he 


finds      Cotton      Stalks      Well 

as  the  camera  filled  with  bolls.     On  the 


EVERY   FARMER   A    PLANT   BREEDER 


same  soil  and  under  the  same  conditions  of  growth 
and  cultivation  he  finds  cotton  stalks  poorly  filled 
with  small  bolls.  If  the  cotton  be  picked  through- 
out the  field  and  at  the  gin  the  seed  be  secured,  there 
is  no  way  to  know  from  which  plants  the  seed  has 
come.  Since  more  plants  of  the  common  kind  were 
present,  it  is  not  unlikely  that  by  getting  seed  at 
the  gin  a  preponderance  of  seed  from  the  inferior 
plants  will  prevail 
and  no  improve- 
ment will  be  pos- 
sible at  all.  On  the 
other  hand,  if  the 
cotton  farmer  seeks 
the  superior  plants 
in  the  field,  and  re- 
jects all  that  are 
average  or  below 
the  average,  a  short 
time  only  will  be 
necessary  in  order 
to  greatly  improve 
the  crop  yield.  This  same  principle  of  selection  ap- 
plies to  potatoes,  oats,  barley,  to  forage  and  fiber 
plants,  and  to  all  other  plants  raised  for  profit  or 
pleasure.  The  real  secret  of  plant  improvement  is 
cleared  up  when  field  selection  of  seed  is  begun. 
There  is  no  mystery  about  plant  breeding,  nor  is  it 
something  only  for  the  scientist  or  the  experiment 
station  man  ;  it  is  the  work  of  all.  Some  of  our  most 
valuable  plant  creations  have  been  the  result,  not 
of  special  scientific  training,  but  of  patience,  devo- 
tion to  an  ideal,  and  a  clear-sighted  notion  of  what 
selection  can  do. 

There  is  not  a  township  or  a  county  in  any  state 


CORN   SMUT 

The  damage  to  corn  each  year  by 
smut  is  very  large.  Treatment  of 
seed  corn  is  of  no  value.  Smutted 
ears  should  be  collected  and  de- 
stroyed before  the  bursting  and  dis- 
charge of  the  spores. 


88  FARM    CROPS 

or  section  that  should  not  have  its  tens  and  hun- 
dreds of  plant  breeders,  young  men  and  old  men, 
at  work  improving  the  plants  of  the  garden  and 
farm  by  means  of  selection.  It  not  only  is  a  most 
pleasant  kind  of  work  in  which  to  engage,  but  it 
is  profitable,  not  only  through  increasing  the  crops 
of  the  farm  but  because  improved  seed  is  in  demand 
just  as  improved  blood  is  always  at  a  premium  in 
the  live  stock  world. 

FANNING   MILLS   FOR  GOOD  SEED 

Farmers  lose  millions  a  year  through  neglecting 
to  properly  clean  and  grade  the  seed  and  grain 
planted.  This  loss  gets  larger  as  land  values  in- 
crease. We  shall  never  have  any  more  land,  and 
the  value  of  this  farm  land  is  going  up  each  year. 
So  every  farmer  is  confronted  by  the  absolute  neces- 
sity of  getting  more  and  more  in  the  way  of  crops 
from  each  acre.  Nothing  so  easy  will  do  more  in 
this  direction  than  greater  care  in  getting  good 
seed.  Even  if  you  keep  up  the  fertility,  follow 
thorough  tillage  and  cultivate  assiduously,  what 
will  these  avail  if  the  seed  is  poor  or  if  it  contains 
weeds,  imperfect  grains  or  other  substances  not 
wanted  in  the  planting? 

Really,  we  should  give  back  to  the  land  the  best 
that  it  gives.  Hence  the  plump  seed,  heavy  with 
vitality,  only  should  be  used,  and  the  shriveled 
seed  and  the  weed  seed  should  be  discarded.  In- 
deed, to  do  otherwise  is  to  sustain  needless  loss. 
Consider  your  hay  crop.  You  sow  the  grass  seed 
mixed  with  weeds.  You  get  weedy  hay  and  feed 
most  of  it,  if  not  all  of  it,  to  your  own  stock.  The 
weed  seed  goes  through  the  animal  and  remains 


EVERY   FARMER   A    PLANT   BREEDER  89 

in  the  manure.  Then  you  spread  that  manure  over 
any  or  every  field;  the  result  is  more  and  more 
weeds,  every  year,  everywhere. 

Moreover,  grass  and  grain  seed,  if  selected  as  is 
ordinarily  done,  run  down,  get  poorer  and  poorer, 
and  in  time  often  get  quite  choked  with  weeds. 
This  ought  to  be  stopped.  There  is  no  compromise. 
There  is  no  excuse  for  a  compromise.  Nothing 
will  do  so  much  in  cleaning  a  farm  of  weeds  as  a 
good  fanning  mill.  Through  its  use  a  man  can 
soon  breed  up  .his  crops.  This  will  yield  better 
and  be  of  better  quality;  and  this  kind  will  give 
him  a  reputation  in  the  community  for  having  seed 
or  grain  that  is  worth  a  good  price.  The  fanning 
mill,  therefore,  is  worth  many  times  its  cost  to 
every  farmer. 

BREEDING  UP  THE  FARM  CROPS 

It  is  a  mistake  to  attempt  the  improvement  of 
a  crop  in  several  directions  at  one  time.  The  task 
is  too  big  to  undertake,  even  though  you  are  able 
to  devote  much  time  to  it.  Limit  your  efforts  to  a 
few  important  characters,  and  steadfastly  follow 
those  lines.  When  these  improvements  become 
fixed  and  staple,  other  less  important  lines  can  be 
started. 

It  does  not  require  much  money  or  much  labor 
to  work  in  this  way  in  crop  improvement.  What 
is  expended  is  certain  to  come  back  shortly.  Or- 
dinarily it  is  to  find  the  heavy  yielding  strains  that 
we  are  after.  Equally  important  is  the  plant's 
ability  to  withstand  disease.  A  disease-resisting 
crop  is  more  certain;  the  seed  from  such  a  strain 
is  more  valuable,  and  therefore  an  aim  in  that  direc- 


SEED   CORN   ROOM 

The  increased  attention  to  the  selection  of  seed  corn  has 
brought  about  the  curing  room.  Where  artificial  heat  is  sup- 
plied for  drying  corn  for  seed,  only  a  small  expense  is  re- 
quired. Any  design  that  will  provide  dry,  warm  air  will  serve 
the  purpose. 

90 


EVERY    FARMER   A    PLANT   BREEDER 


tion  is  worthy  in  any  improvement.  In  undertak- 
ing to  breed  up  farm  crops  field  selection  is  best. 
To  secure  100  ears  of  corn  or  bolls  of  cotton  or 
heads  of  wheat  that  are  the  best  in  the  field,  that 
are  disease  resisting,  and  at  the  same  time  that  are 
heavy  yielders,  is  to  have  available  for  next  year's 


IMPROVEMENT   OF    CORN    BY    SELECTION 

The  variety  shown  here  is  the  Boone  County  White.  On 
the  right  are  the  original  types  from  which  the  ears  on  the 
left  were  developed  by  selection.  The  yield  of  corn  can  be  in- 
creased very  much  if  right  care  and  attention  are  given  in  the 
selection  of  the  seed. 

seeding  some  very  choice  seed  for  a  seed  plot.  You 
see,  in  the  seed  plot  there  will  be  no  seed  used  ex- 
cepting what  has  been  hand  selected  and  conse- 
quently very  choice.  This  seed  plot  should  pos- 
sess a  type  of  soil  common  to  the  farm  and  fairly 
fertile;  if  not,  it  should  be  enriched.  The  same 
seed  plot  should  not  be  used,  however,  year  after 


92  FARM    CROPS 

year.  Crop  rotation  is  as  important  to  the  seed 
plot  as  it  is  for  the  main  crop. 

When  this  seed  plot  crop  matures,  you  get  a 
chance  for  a  study  of  superior  plants.  You  will 
note  great  variations  and  some  plants  will  show 
the  same  marked  increase  that  the  selected  seed 
did  in  the  first  place  over  the  main  crop. 

The  seed  plot  offers  an  opportunity  to  trace  out 
the  superior  strains.  The  animal  breeders  call  this 
prepotency.  It  represents  the  power  of  the  parent 
to  transmit  superior  qualities  to  the  offspring. 
Some  animals  do  this  to  a  remarkable  degree ;  some 
plants  do  not.  If  individual  farm  plants  be  not 
studied,  there  is  no  opportunity  to  discover  the 
prepotent  strains.  Those  possessing  weak  trans- 
mitting power  are  not  desirable  for  breeding  stock 
and  these  should  be  discarded.  Preserve  seed  from 
the  plants  only  that  are  able  to  propagate  their 
individual  qualities  and  merits,  otherwise  your 
progress  will  be  slow. 

This  plan  of  seed  improvement  should  never  be 
abandoned.  The  choicest  fruit  from  the  choicest 
plants  should  be  selected  each  year  for  the  next 
year's  seed  plot,  and  the  balance,  which  ought  to 
make  enough  seed  for  the  main  crop,  should  be 
used  for  that  purpose.  In  this  way,  the  seed  plot 
is  to  be  used  to  furnish  seed  for  the  main  crop  and 
the  choice  plants  selected  out  of  the  seed  plot  are  to 
be  used  as  seed  for  the  next  year's  seed  plot.  If 
this  method  of  seed  selection  be  continued  long 
enough,  there  will  be  no  running  out  of  seed,  nor 
will  there  be  any  deterioration  in  high  yielding 
qualities.  And  all  the  time  the  crop  will  be  im- 
proving because  the  seed  is  being  made  better. 
The  seed  plot  does  for  farm  crops  what  the  Babcock 


EVERY   FARMER  A   PLANT  BREEDER  93 

test  and  scales  have  been  doing  right  along  for  the 
dairy  cow.  It  indicates  the  individuals  that  are 
worth  perpetuating. 

LAWS    OF   PLANT    IMPROVEMENT 

The  two  fundamental  principles  behind  plant  im- 
provement are  heredity  and  variation.  Upon  these 
two  you  must  build  your  structure;  but  you  must 
finish  it  and  beautify  it  by  selection.  Heredity  is 
the  law  that  like  produces  like.  Variation  is  the 
law  that  works  to  produce  new  things.  Heredity 
is  the  law  of  uniformity.  Variation  is  the  law  of 
change.  Heredity  is  satisfied  with  what  now  ex- 
ists. Variation  goes  out  to  explore — to  seek  new 
paths  and  new  fields.  The  plant  breeder  builds 
upon  the  present  heredity,  but  he  courts  variation 
and  urges  it  to  seek  new  findings.  If  these  are  to 
his  liking,  he  seizes  them  as  his  own,  attaches  them 
to  the  old  heredity  and  builds  the  new  structure 
higher  and  better.  The  work  is  now  to  fix  the  new 
acquisition  and  to  make  it  a  part  of  the  building 
material.  Variation  all  the  while  is  allowed  free 
range  that  it  may  gather  in  new  discoveries  for 
further  improvement  and  use.  We  let  heredity 
hold,  keep  and  guard  the  values  of  the  best  fitted 
animals,  but  we  call  in  variation  to  improve  them. 

But  where  is  selection?  If  its  role  is  so  im- 
portant, why  is  it  not  to  be  seen  on  this  stage  of 
improvement?  It  is,  if  nothing  in  the  play  has 
been  struck  out.  Selection  is  man's  part  of  the 
drama.  It  is  his  work  to  decide  which  of  the  new 
things  that  variation  has  found  shall  be  held,  which 
new  ones  shall  be  cast  aside,  and  at  what  point  the 
new  acquisition  is  to  be  fixed  as  a  part  of  the  old 


94  FARM    CROPS 

stock.  In  starting  his  operations,  it  is  the  plant 
breeder's  duty  to  ascertain  what  stocks  and  in- 
dividuals already  have  progressed  furthest  in  the 
line  in  which  he  is  interested,  and  these  are  the  ones 
with  which  to  begin.  Every  breeder  seeks  some 
special  end.  By  looking  over  the  field  it  is  pos- 
sible, if  we  are  onto  our  jobs,  to  get  individuals 
peculiarly  adapted  to  the  work  we  are  lay- 


inbred.  Crossbred. 

EFFECT  OF  INBREEDING  OF  CORN 
No.  1.     The  very  small  stalks  are  inbred. 
No.  2.     The  large  stalks  are  crossbred. 

ing  out  to  have  performed.  We  ought  to  look  for 
these  superior  individuals  and,  on  finding  them,  let 
them  be  reserved  for  the  task  of  improving  the 
strain  and  variety. 


CHAPTER  X 
Farm  Crops 

ALFALFA. — With  good  seed,  a  proper  seed  bed 
and  land  adapted  for  growing  the  crop,  a  careful 
farmer  should  be  almost  as  sure  of  establishing  a 
successful  stand  of  alfalfa  as  the  average  farmer  is 
of  getting  a  stand  of  wheat  or  oats.  This  may  seem 
like  a  strong  statement,  since  failure  to  get  a  good 
stand  of  alfalfa  has  often  been  the  experience  of 
many  farmers,  especially  those  who  were  inexpe- 
rienced in  growing  this  crop.  However,  it  is  gen- 
erally true  that  the  longer  alfalfa  is  raised  on  any 
farm,  the  more  readily  it  grows  and  the  easier  it 
becomes  for  the  farmer  to  start  the  crop. 

Alfalfa  will  succeed  in  a  variety  of  soils,  grading 
from  sandy  to  heavy  clay.  The  crop,  however, 
does  not  thrive  alike  on  all  soils;  perhaps  a  deep, 
fertile  loam  or  clayey  loam  well  supplied  with  the 
mineral  elements  of  plant  food  is  the  most  favor- 
able soil  for  growing  alfalfa.  The  crop  needs  a 
deep,  well-drained  soil ;  on  wet  land,  with  under- 
ground water  too  near  the  surface,  alfalfa  will  often 
produce  poorly  and  the  plant  soon  die.  Alfalfa  will 
not  thrive  on  a  soil  deficient  in  lime,  which  shows 
an  acid  reaction. 

It  is  a  fact  well  known  to  old  clover  growers  that 
clover  cannot  be  readily  started  on  old,  worn  lands 
until  the  soil  has  been  improved  in  texture  and 
fertility  by  manuring.  The  same  is  true  also  of 
alfalfa,  and  it  is  often  advisable  before  seeding 

95 


96  FARM    CROPS 

alfalfa  on  thin  or  worn  land  to  take  a  year  or  two 
in  preparing  the  soil  by  green  manuring,  deep  plow- 
ing and  thorough  cultivation,  with  the  application 
also,  when  possible,  of  barnyard  manure.  Alfalfa 
may  be  started  in  very  thin  land,  deficient  in  humus 
and  nitrogen,  but  which  contains  a  sufficient  sup- 
ply of  the  mineral  elements  of  plant  food ;  but  under 
such  conditions  it  starts  very  slowly,  and  may  not 
produce  profitable  crops  for  a  year  or  two  after 
seeding;  yet,  in  time,  when  the  plants  have  estab- 
lished a  deep  root  system  and  are  well  supplied 
with  the  nitrogen-gathering  bacteria,  the  alfalfa 
makes  a  thrifty  growth  and  produces  excellent 
crops,  even  without  manuring  or  fertilization. 

How  Much  Seed  to  Sow. — The  amount  of  alfalfa 
seed  to  sow  will  depend  to  some  extent  upon  the 
quality  and  vitality  of  the  seed.  The  general  practice 
has  been  and  perhaps  still  is,  to  sow  about  20  pounds 
of  seed  to  the  acre ;  but  many  of  the  oldest  and  most 
successful  alfalfa  growers  are  now  using  much  less 
seed.  Good  stands  have  been  reported  from  sow- 
ing as  little  as  5  pounds  of  good  seed  to  an  acre. 
With  alfalfa,  as  with  clover,  doubtless  the  season 
has  much  to  do  with  securing  a  successful  catch. 

The  Seed  Bed. — A  deep,  loose  seed  bed  is  not  a 
favorable  one  in  which  to  seed  alfalfa,  clover  or 
grasses.  Such  a  seed  bed  may  be  in  a  favorable 
condition  for  planting  potatoes,  or  perhaps  corn 
may  sprout  and  grow  well  under  the  conditions 
named,  since  the  seed  is  large  and  strong  in  vitality 
and  contains  much  nutriment  to  nourish  and  start 
the  young  plant.  But  with  clover,  alfalfa,  grasses 
and  other  small  seeds  the  ideal  seed  bed  should  be 
mellow,  but  finely  pulverized  only  about  as  deep 
as  the  seed  is  planned.  Beneath  the  point  at  which 


ALFALFA  97 

the  seed  is  placed  and  covered  in  the  earth  the  soil 
should  be  rather  firm,  but  not  too  hard  or  compact ; 
such  a  condition  as  may  be  secured  by  cultivating 
the  surface  of  well-settled  fall  plowing,  or  by  disk- 
ing and  harrowing  unplowed  corn  land  in  the  spring. 

Preparation  of  the  Seed  Bed. — The  proper  seed  bed 
for  fall  seeding  may  often  be  prepared  by  summer 
plowing  immediately  after  harvesting  wheat  or  early 
spring  grain  and  harrowing  or  disking  at  intervals 
until  seeding  time.  It  is  often  advisable  to  disk 
clean  stubble  land  in  preference  to  plowing,  starting 
the  disking  as  soon  after  harvest  as  possible.  Millet 
or  cowpeas  cut  for  hay  make  good  crops  with  which 
to  precede  the  fall  sowing  of  alfalfa.  On  foul  land 
or  in  a  dry  climate  it  is  well  to  fallow  the  land, 
practicing  frequent  cultivation  during  the  summer 
previous  to  seeding  in  the  fall.  Such  preparation 
will  clear  the  land  of  weeds,  store  and  conserve  soil 
moisture  and  cause  the  accumulation  of  some  avail- 
able plant  food  for  the  tender  young  plants. 

Another  method  of  seeding,  adapted  to  weedy 
land  or  to  land  which  is  deficient  in  available  plant 
food,  is  to  start  the  preparation  of  the  seed  bed 
early  in  the  spring,  when  the  land  may  be  either 
plowed  or  cultivated  with  the  disk-harrow.  The 
cultivation  with  the  common  harrow,  disk  or  Acme 
harrow  should  be  continued  at  intervals  of  a  week 
or  ten  days,  in  order  to  destroy  the  weeds,  con- 
serve the  moisture  and  develop  available  plant  food. 
Late  in  the  spring,  seed  the  alfalfa,  choosing  a  time 
to  sow,  when  possible,  soon  after  a  good  rain,  so 
that  the  soil  may  be  in  good  condition  to  germinate 
the  alfalfa  seed.  Alfalfa  seeded  by  this  method 
should  sprout  very  quickly  and  the  weeds  should 
not  be  troublesome,  since  the  weed  seeds  in  the 


98  FARM    CROPS 

surface  soil  will  have  already  germinated  and  the 
weeds  will  have  been  destroyed  by  the  early  cul- 
tivation. The  cultivation  also  causes  some  of  the 
latent  fertility  of  the  soil  to  develop  and  become 
available,  and  with  the  abundant  moisture  supplied 
should  usually  insure  a  good  start  of  alfalfa. 

The  firm  condition  of  the  soil  beneath  the  seed 
and  a  good  connection  with  the  subsoil  not  only 
offers  favorable  conditions  for  supplying  the  seed 
with  moisture,  but  the  mellow  covering  over  the 
seed  allows  the  air  and  heat  to  reach  the  seed  from 
above,  and  these  three — moisture,  heat  and  air — are 
the  essential  factors  in  seed  germination ;  but  if  any 
of  these  are  lacking  the  seed  will  not  germinate. 

Time  to  Sow. — Alfalfa  may  be  successfully  seeded 
either  early  in  the  spring  or  early  in  the  fall.  It 
may  be  destroyed  by  a  hard  frost  just  after  the 
young  plants  have  appeared,  showing  their  first 
leaves,  but  when  the  plants  have  thrown  out  a  few 
leaves  and  have  made  some  growth  they  are  not 
likely  to  be  destroyed  by  frost.  Thus  very  early 
seeding  is  perhaps  more  apt  to  be  successful  than 
medium  early  seeding,  while  late  seeding  is  most 
apt  to  suffer  from  heavy  rain  packing  the  soil  and 
from  the  effects  of  hot,  dry  weather.  Here  is  a 
general  rule  which  may  be  practiced  with  success: 
Prepare  the  seed  bed  early,  either  in  the  fall  or 
spring,  and  seed  when  the  soil  is  in  a  fit  condition 
to  germinate  the  seed.  There  is  little  use  of  sow- 
ing alfalfa  unless  the  soil  conditions  are  favorable 
to  germinate  the  seed  at  once,  for  the  seeds  are 
much  more  apt  to  be  injured  and  lost  if  they  must 
lie  for  any  considerable  time  in  a  seed  bed  which 
is  not  in  fit  condition  to  germinate  seed. 


ALFALFA  99 

By  fall  seeding  the  land  usually  returns  a  fair 
yield  of  hay  the  first  season  after  sowing,  whereas 
with  spring  seeding  the  alfalfa  is  not  likely  to  make 
sufficient  growth  to  produce  a  profitable  crop  of 
hay  the  first  season,  and  should  the  alfalfa  make 
sufficient  growth,  the  weeds  will  usually  be  so 
abundant  as  to  greatly  reduce  the  value  of  the  first 
season's  cuttings  for  hay.  On  weedy  land  fall  seed- 
ing has  the  advantage  of  spring  seeding,  in  that 
the  weeds  are  not  troublesome  in  the  fall  and  the 
fall-seeded  alfalfa  starts  ahead  of  weeds  in  the 
spring,  giving  a  comparatively  clean  growth  of  hay 
the  first  year  after  seeding. 

Methods  of  Seeding. — A  large  amount  of  alfalfa 
has  been  seeded  with  the  ordinary  grain  drill.  At 
present  the  greatest  objection  to  this  method  is  that 
it  requires  too  much  seed.  To  sow  in  this  way 
requires  20  to  30  pounds  of  seed  an  acre.  The  feed 
on  the  ordinary  grain  drill  cannot  be  set  up  close 
enough  to  sow  less  pure  seed  than  the  amount 
named,  and  diluting  with  bran  or  other  material  is 
often  unsatisfactory,  causing  an  uneven  distribu- 
tion of  seed.  A  better  plan  to  sow  with  the  grain 
drill  is  to  have  a  grass-seeder  attachment  to  the 
drill,  which  will  allow  close  adjustment  and  with 
spouts  emptying  into  the  grain  tubes,  so  that  the 
seed  may  be  dropped  in  the  drill  furrows  and  evenly 
covered.  In  some  soils  and  in  some  seasons  there 
is  little  doubt  but  that  the  method  of  seeding  with 
the  drill  may  give  more  favorable  results  than 
broadcasting.  As  a  rule,  however,  alfalfa  may  be 
successfully  started  by  sowing  broadcast  in  a  well- 
prepared  seed  bed,  care  being  taken  to  seed  at  the 
right  time  and  when  the  soil  is  in  favorable  con- 
dition for  sprouting  the  seed.  Alfalfa  is  success- 


IOO  FARM    CROPS 

fully  sown  by  hand,  but  in  recent  years  the  little 
wheelbarrow  seeder,  several  makes  of  which  are  on 
the  market,  has  come  into  use  for  broadcasting 
grass,  clover,  alfalfa  and  other  small  seeds. 
The  seed  should  not  be  covered  deeply;  usually 
less  than  I  inch  is  better  than  more  than  I  inch  of 
soil  covering,  while  on  heavy,  compact  soil  or  in 
wet  seasons  the  seed  should  be  covered  very  lightly. 
The  seed  bed  should  be  fully  prepared  before  seed- 
ing, and  one  brush  with  the  harrow  is  usually  suf- 
ficient to  cover  the  seed  in  a  seed  bed  having  a 
mellow,  even  surface.  If  the  seed  is  planted  too 
deep,  the  young  shoots  will  often  be  unable  to 
reacty  the  surface.  The  vitality  of  the  small  seed 
being  quickly  exhausted  the  plant  and  the  seed  are 
lost.  There  is  always  danger  in  using  the  drill  for 
seeding  that  the  seed  may  be  planted  too  deep. 
Even  if  the  seed  is  covered  very  lightly  it  must  lie 
in  a  furrow,  which  may  fill  with  the  first  beating 
rain,  thus  covering  the  seed  or  young  plants  and 
often  destroying  them.  As  a  rule,  it  is  not  best  to 
roll  after  seeding.  In  light  soils  or  dry  seasons, 
however,  it  may  become  desirable  to  roll  to  cover 
the  seed  and  press  the  soil  about  the  seed.  It  will 
always  be  well  to  follow  the  roller  with  a  light 
harrow,  leaving  the  ground  furrowed  and  with  a 
surface  of  mulch,  and  not  smooth  and  hard  as  left 
by  the  roller. 

Nurse  Crop. — It  is  safest,  as  a  rule,  to  sow 
alfalfa  without  a  nurse  crop,  and  this  is  the  method 
usually  practiced,  although  it  is  possible  to  get 
good  stands  in  the  most  favorable  climate,  soil  and 
season  by  seeding  with  spring  grain  crops.  Again, 
in  light  soil,  which  is  apt  to  blow,  it  may  be  advis- 
able to  sow  some  crop  with  the  alfalfa  in  order  to 


ALFALFA 


protect  the  young  plants  from  the  drifting  sand. 
If  this  method  is  practiced,  a  lighter  seeding  of 
grain  should  be  made  than  when  the  grain  is  seeded 
alone,  and  in  a  dry  season  it  may  become  desirable 
to  cut  the  grain  crop  for  hay  before  it  matures  in 
order  to  prevent  the  alfalfa  from  being  destroyed 
by  drought.  The  nurse-crop  method  cannot  be  con- 
sidered a  safe  one  for  establishing  a  stand  of  alfalfa. 
Treatment  After  Seeding.  —  Alfalfa  seeded  in  the 
spring  needs  little  care  after  the  first  season,  more 
than  to  mow  a  few  times  during  the  summer  to 
prevent  the  weeds  from  seeding  and  to  keep  them 
from  "  smothering  "  the  young  alfalfa  plants.  It  is 
well  to  mow  the  field  two  or  three  times  during 
the  season,  but  the  growth  of  weeds  and  alfalfa 
should  not  be  cut  too  close  to  the  ground  until  the 
alfalfa  blooms,  when  it  may  be  mowed  close  with- 
out injuring  the  plants.  It  seems  to  be  true  that 
when  alfalfa  has  become  well  established,  frequent 
close  cutting  seems  to  benefit  the  plant  and  cause 
it  to  grow  more  vigorously,  but  this  is  not  true  of 
the  young,  tender  plants.  It  is  true  of  alfalfa  as 
with  any  other  young  plant,  that  it  must  form  a 
top  growth  before  or  at  the  same  time  that  it  is 
producing  roots.  The  leaves  are  the  stomach  and 
lungs  of  the  plant,  and  before  the  roots  can  develop 
the  leaves  must  manufacture  the  products  which 
are  built  into  the  cells  and  tissue  that  constitute  the 
roots.  If  this  top  growth  of  leaves  is  cut  off  before 
a  sufficient  root  growth  has  been  established  to 
easily  restore  the  top  growth,  the  effect  is  to  check 
the  growth  of  the  plant,  weaken  it,  and  perhaps 
destroy  it.  The  fall-seeded  alfalfa  needs  no  care 
in  the  fall  ;  the  full  growth  of  plants  and  weeds 
should  be  left  as  a  winter  covering.  The  next  sea- 


FARM    CROPS 


son  the  alfalfa  may  be  regularly  cut  for  hay,  and 
with  a  good  catch  will  often  produce  three  or  four 
cuttings  the  first  year,  yielding  three  or  four  tons 
of  good  hay  an  acre,  although  on  foul  land  the  hay 
is  apt  to  be  a  little  weedy. 

Lime  for  Alfalfa. — When  the  soil  is  acid  alfalfa 
will  not  succeed  until  the  acidity  has  been  corrected 
by  the  application  of  lime  in  some  form.  This  acid 
condition  in  soil  is  apt  to  prevail  in  old,  worn  land. 
It  is  not  usual  to  apply  lime  directly  to  the  crop. 
In  fact,  if  quicklime  is  scattered  in  alfalfa  it  is  prob- 
able that  some  of  the  plants  will  be  injured  or 
destroyed  by  the  lime.  Lime  in  the  form  of  car- 
bonate of  lime  may  be  applied  in  small  quantities 
directly  to  the  crop  without  danger  of  injuring  the 
plants.  A  good  plan  in  liming  soil  for  alfalfa  is  to  plow 
the  field  several  weeks  or  months  before  the  alfalfa 
is  to  be  seeded,  scatter  the  lime  soon  after  plowing 
and  mix  it  with  the  surface  soil  by  harrowing  or 
disking,  and  continue  the  disking  or  harrowing  at 
intervals  until  the  time  of  seeding.  On  soil  that  would 
be  benefited  by  applying  lime,  the  application  of 
lime  before  seeding  will  greatly  improve  the  chances 
for  getting  a  good  stand  and  a  good  start  of  alfalfa. 

ALSIKE  CLOVER.— This  plant,  compared  with 
common  red  clover,  is  characterized  by  a  pinkish 
rather  than  a  bluish  red  tinge  of  its  blossoms.  Its 
roots  are  smaller.  It  produces  less  pasture  after  a 
season  of  maturity  and  also  matures  later  than  the 
common  red  varieties.  It  has  a  perennial  rather 
than  a  biennial  habit  of  growth.  It  feeds  some- 
what near  to  the  surface  and  therefore  does  not 
possess  drouth-resisting  qualities  of  the  stronger 
varieties  of  clover.  For  bee  feeding  it  is  very  popu- 
lar. Its  range  of  distribution  is  much  more  limited 


ALSIKE    CLOVER 


103 


than  the  common  red  variety,  and  is  better  known 
in  the  Northern  states  than  in  those  of  the  South. 
It  is  especially  adapted  to  clay  soils,  clay  loams  and 
bottom  lands.  It  does  much  better  on  stiff  clays 
than  the  mammoth  variety.  If  moisture  is  present, 
it  will  do  well  on  any  soil. 
The  manner  of  sowing  is 
similar  to  that  of  common 
red  clover,  3  to  5  pounds  of 
seed  being  used  to  the  acre. 
It  blends  well  with  other 
kinds  of  grass  for  pasture, 
and  with  timothy,  orchard 
grass  and  Kentucky  blue 
grass  it  is  at  its  best.  It 
is  frequently  sown  alone, 
but  is  most  generally  used 
in  combination  with  other 
grasses.  When  sown  alone 
it  may  be  pastured  con- 
tinuously after  it  has  made 
a  good  start  in  the  spring.  ALSIKE  CLOVER 

After    maturity,    however,       Also    called    Swedish 

J*  4            ,   ,  clover.    It  thrives  best  in  a 

it  Stops  its  growth  and  fur-  cool  climate.    Will  grow  in 

•  t_   "     «•.  .1                              r  moister      soils      than      red 

niSneS    little    pasture    irom  clover,  but  is  not  so  resist- 

jv_j.   ,           T        i          i  ant    against    drouth.     This 

that   On.      In   dry,   hot   wea-  Piant  is  about  half  between 

th^r     anH     on     Hrv     cr»i1c     it  common     red     clover     and 

dry    SOUS  white  clover. 

should  not  be  pastured  as 

closely  as   would   be   possible   in   moist   soils    and 

during  cooler  seasons. 

ARTICHOKES.— A  plant  grown  for  the  under- 
ground tubers.  These  are  potato-like  in  appear- 
ance and  may  be  white,  yellow,  red  or  purple.  The 
white  and  red  varieties,  as  a  rule,  give  the  best 
yields.  They  are  used  to  some  extent  for  table  pur- 


IO4  FARM    CROPS 

poses,  but  are  most  commonly  grown  as  stock  food. 
The  tubers  may  be  harvested  or  left  in  the  ground. 
If  the  soil  is  not  too  wet  they  keep  very  well  in  this 
way.  If  grown  for  hogs,  the  common  practice  is 
to  let  the  hogs  do  the  harvesting  themselves;  that 
is,  root  all  about  and  gather  the  tubers  themselves, 
usually  leaving  enough  in  the  soil  to  replant  the 
crop  another  season.  Very  large  quantities  of 
tubers  are  secured,  the  yield  varying  from  300  to 
1,000  bushels  to  the  acre.  They  give  a  great  deal 
of  food,  being  about  equal  in  nutritive  value  to 
potatoes  and  above  turnips  and  mangels.  After 
hogs  have  acquired  a  taste  for  the  tubers  they  eat 
them  greedily.  Being  heavy  carriers  of  starch, 
artichokes  are  a  good  substitute  for  corn  and  not 
only  maintain  steady  growth,  but  fatten  as  well. 

Artichokes  are  not  intended  to  be  a  main  crop 
on  the  farm,  but  more  as  a  side  issue.  Where  hogs 
are  raised  by  the  lot  method  a  small  patch  of  arti- 
chokes is  desirable.  During  the  summer  season  the 
hogs  can  be  pastured  on  clover  or  rye  to  roam  in 
the  wheat  fields  or  other  pasture  fields  and  when 
fall  comes  on  be  turned  into  the  artichoke  patch 
where  they  will  get  a  good  ration  for  several  weeks. 
In  the  following  spring  the  artichoke  patch  should 
be  disked  or  harrowed  over  and  the  soil  put  in  good 
condition  again.  As  the  plants  begin  to  grow,  if 
planted  in  rows,  cultivation  should  be  carried  on  to 
keep  the  weeds  down  and  to  give  the  crop  the  value 
of  culture.  The  plants  growing  between  the  rows 
may  be  cultivated  out.  If  the  planting  be  broad- 
cast, then  no  cultivations  other  than  the  harrowings 
will  be  necessary. 

In  starting  an  artichoke  patch  some  care  should 
be  exercised  in  the  soil  selected.  They  like  well- 


ARTICHOKES  IO5 

drained  soils.  The  light  sandy  or  gravelly  soils 
too  poor  for  most  other  crops  often  produce  very 
thriving  crops.  A  dry  soil  is  desirable,  otherwise 
the  tubers  may  rot.  The  artichoke  plant  has  con- 
siderable drouth-resisting  qualities,  and  for  that 
reason  fits  in  very  nicely  with  other  farm  crops, 
since  the  little  poor  patches  may  be  given  over  to 
it  to  be  employed  as  heretofore  indicated.  Fungous 
diseases  and  insect  pests  do  not  seem  to  trouble  the 
plants.  In  setting  the  bed,  give  the  land  deep  till- 
age and  set  the  plants  in  rows  3  feet  apart  and  the 
sets  in  rows  2  feet  apart.  The  plantings  are  made 
by  the  tubers  or  sets,  just  as  with  potatoes.  Inas- 
much as  the  artichoke  plant  is  not  sensitive  to 
frost  it  may  be  planted  early  in  the  spring.  It  is  a 
good  plan  to  cultivate  during  the  summer  just 
about  the  same  as  potatoes.  The  plants  grow  from 
6  to  10  feet  in  height  and  very  much  resemble  the 
wild  sunflower  in  appearance. 

BARLEY. — The  principal  use  of  barley  is  for 
malting  and  stock  feeding.  Although  grown  in 
nearly  all  sections  of  the  country,  its  extensive  cul- 
ture is  confined  to  a  few  states,  chief  among  which 
are  California,  Wisconsin,  Minnesota,  Iowa  and  the 
Dakotas.  The  best  malting  barley  is  grown  on 
rather  light,  well-drained  soil  producing  medium 
yields  of  bright  grain.  Heavy  yields  of  grain  and 
straw  are  secured  on  fertile  loams  and  clay,  but  the 
grain  is  darker  colored  and  suitable  only  for  stock 
feed.  In  fact,  grain  grown  on  heavier  soils  is  of 
much  higher  feeding  value. 

Plowing  and  fitting  the  ground  for  barley  needs 
to  be  done  more  deeply  and  thoroughly  than  for 
wheat  or  any  other  grain  crop.  It  is  good  practice 
to  follow  with  barley  after  some  hoed  crop  that 


106  FARM   CROPS 

has  been  well  fertilized  with  barnyard  manure.  Ex- 
cellent yields  are  secured  after  alfalfa  or  root  crops. 
The  crop  matures  in  about  100  days  for  seeding, 
and  requires  a  rich,  warm,  easily  penetrated  seed 
bed,  well  supplied  with  plant  food,  for  it  is  dis- 
tinctly a  surface-feeding  crop. 

As  barley  is  grown  for  two  principal  purposes, 
it  requires  fertilizing  in  accordance  with  the  use 
to  be  made  of  it,  since  the  composition  is  influenced 
by  the  fertilizer.  For  malting,  a  grain  rich  in  starch 
is  sought.  Many  experiments  have  shown  that 
fertilizers  of  high  potash  content  tend  to  produce  a 
heavy  grain  with  a  large  proportion  of  starch.  For 
feeding  purposes  a  high  protein  content  is  desired. 
Very  rich  soils,  or  those  highly  fertilized  with  barn- 
yard manure  or  other  nitrogenous  manures,  produce 
a  heavy  growth  of  straw  and  grain  of  good  protein 
content.  When  grown  for  feeding,  fertilizer  mix- 
tures carrying  relatively  large  amounts  of  phos- 
phoric acid  and  nitrogen  should  be  used.  Super- 
phosphate, ground  bone,  dried  blood  and  nitrate  of 
soda  are  satisfactory  sources. 

Sowing. — In  the  Northern  states  the  seeding  time 
generally  falls  between  the  spring  wheat  and  oat 
seedings.  The  young  plants  are  more  tender  and 
sensitive  to  frost  than  wheat,  and  are  easily  injured 
by  cold  rains  or  drouth.  On  average  soils  sow  at 
the  rate  of  2  bushels  an  acre.  When  sown  on 
rich  land  or  broadcasted  use  2^  bushels  of  seed. 
The  best  depth  to  seed  averages  3  inches  and  should 
not  be  less  than  2  nor  more  than  4. 

There  are  two  classes  of  barley,  one  with  hulls 
and  one  without.  The  latter  class  is  often  called 
naked  or  bald  barley.  The  hulled  class  consists 
of  two-rowed,  four-rowed  and  six-rowed  types. 


BARLEY  107 

The  two-rowed  is  the  favorite  malting  type  and  the 
six-rowed  is  in  highest  esteem  for  stock  feed. 
Chevalier  is,  perhaps,  the  most  prominent  variety 
of  the  malting  types,  while  Manshury  easily  takes 
the  lead  of  the  stock-feed  types.  The  hull-less 
barley  is  grown  for  feed.  It  is  somewhat  earlier 
than  the  hulled  sorts,  but  usually  yields  much 
lighter.  Success  is  a  variety  that  has  given  good 
satisfaction  at  high  elevations. 

The  prejudice  against  feeding  barley  in  this  coun- 
try is  unfounded.  While  not  equal  to  corn  for 
fattening  purposes,  for  growing  stock  it  stands  at 
the  head  of  grains.  On  pigs  it  produces  flesh  of 
the  highest  quality.  Barley  hay  does  not  have  a 
high  feeding  value  and  is  only  grown  where  more 
valuable  forage  crops  do  not  thrive. 

BEANS.— See  Field  Beans. 

BEGGAR  WEED. — A  leguminous  plant  used  in 
the  Southern  states  for  hay  and  soil  improvement. 
It  grows  from  3  to  7  feet  high  and  is  a  superior 
plant  for  sandy  soils,  including  the  hammock  and 
pine  lands  of  Florida  and  other  gulf  coast  sections. 
Four  or  5  pounds  of  clean  seed  are  sown  to  the 
acre  for  soil-renovating  purposes  and  from  8  to  10 
for  haying  purposes.  The  seed  should  not  be  sown 
until  the  soil  is  warm,  the  best  time  being  just 
before  the  summer  rains.  Usually  two  crops  can 
be  secured,  the  first  crop  being  cut  at  the  time  the 
first  flowers  appear.  Beggar  weed  yields  anywhere 
from  2  to  5  tons  an  acre  and  the  hay  produced  is 
liked  as  well  as  red  clover  hay.  For  green  manur- 
ing there  is  perhaps  no  crop  superior.  If  3  or  4 
pounds  of  seed  are  seeded  in  corn  at  the  last  cul- 
tivation, splendid  pasturage  will  be  secured  during 
the  rest  of  the  season.  It  is  not  a  weed  and  does 


io8 


FARM    CROPS 


not  become  so,  although  the  name  indicates  such  to 
be  the  case.  Wherever  it  has  been  grown  it  has 
given  excellent  results  and  cows  and  sheep  are 
very  fond  of  it. 

BERMUDA  GRASS.— A  native  of  a  warm 
climate,  Bermuda  grass  delights  in  sunshine 
and  perishes  if  it  is  with- 
held. When  frost  and  cool  wea- 
ther approach  it  wraps  itself  in 
sleep  until  warm  weather  comes 
again,  but  it  does  not  object  to 
cattle  feeding  on  its  withered 
leaves  and  stems  during  its 
period  of  rest.  It  is  hardy,  and 
grows  everywhere,  covering  even 
the  poorest  broken  and  rocky  hill- 
sides, or  railroad  banks,  with  its 
mantle  of  green.  There  is  a  well- 
authenticated  record  of  6y2  tons 
of  Bermuda  hay  per  acre  from 
three  mowings  during  one  sea- 
son, on  Georgia  bottom-land. 
Even  the  most  enthusiastic  be- 
liever cannot  claim  so  much  for 
blue  grass,  its  rival  of  the  cooler 
BEGGAR  WEED  sectjons>  Bermuda  is  commonly 

With  a  fair  stand,  ,  M  «    , 

from  3  to  5  tons  of     and  easily  propagated  by  means 
of  underground  stems,   although 

well.     In 


secured  to  the  acre. 

This     hay     is     but      CAArl     mav    Kp    nQprl 

slightly  inferior  to      seea    mav    De 

[ng  vamf  Thefblg~-     growing    it     creeps    along    both 
gar  weed  is  a  most     underground   and   above   ground, 

excellent     crop     to  •  n         1  Ii         • 

turn    under    for     even   more   rapidly  than  the   ivy 

green  manure  and 
is  considered  su- 
perior for  this  pur- 
pose to  velvet 
using 


climbs   on   stone   and   brick,   and 
thrives  where  land  is  hard,  broken 

and  stony-   Tt  is  the  very  plant 


BERMUDA   GRASS  IOQ 

for  the  old,  run-down  fields  of  the  cotton  belt, 
and  the  broken  hillsides  that  must  be  protected 
lest  they  wash  away.  In  propagating,  this  is  a  good 
way:  Plow  your  field  as  you  would  for  corn  or 
cotton  and  smooth  with  the  harrow.  Use  the  plow 
to  open  furrows  2  or  3  feet  apart  over  the  entire 
field,  just  as  you  do  for  corn  or  cotton.  In  these 
open  furrows  drop  pieces  of  Bermuda  roots  or  sods 
every  20  or  30  inches.  When  this  has  been  done 
you  may  cover  by  throwing  the  furrow-slice 
back,  then  harrow  again  or  roll  the  land. 

Roots  and  sods  may  be  prepared  for  the  purpose 
by  putting  them  in  small  piles  and  thoroughly 
chopping  with  an  ax  or  spade.  In  this  manner 
you  will  secure  enough  settings  from  a  bushel  of 
plants  to  plant  several  acres.  With  the  coming  of 
warm  weather  the  Bermuda  settings  quickly  begin 
to  spread  out  in  every  direction,  in  a  few  months' 
time  covering  the  entire  surface  of  the  land  and 
filling  the  soil  with  a  perfect  mat  of  roots.  Later 
in  the  season  a  disk-harrow  may  be  run  over  the 
land  with  advantage,  that  it  may  cut  the  runners, 
start  new  settings,  loosen  the  soil  and  give  better 
foothold  for  the  plants. 

BLUE  GRASS.— See  Kentucky  Blue  Grass. 

BROOM  CORN. — Broom  corn  is  of  two  general 
varieties,  standard  and  dwarf,  the  difference  being 
in  height  of  the  stalk  and  length  of  the  broom.  The 
soil  preparation  for  planting  this  crop  varies  in  no 
essential  detail  from  any  ordinary  treatment  for 
growing  Indian  corn.  A  finely  pulverized  condi- 
tion of  the  seed  bed  is  necessary,  since  a  rough  or 
sandy  condition  of  the  surface  will  result  in  cover- 
ing up  some  of  the  young  plants  during  first  cul- 
tivation. It  is  planted  in  drills  with  an  ordinary 


110  FARM    CROPS 

corn  planter.  Special  plates  are  made  for  drilling 
this  fine  seed.  About  3  inches  is  the  proper  depth 
for  planting.  Cultivation  may  begin  at  practically 
any  time  after  planting,  by  the  use  of  the  harrow 
lengthwise  of  the  rows.  The  young  plants  will  not 
be  injured  by  this  treatment,  while  the  weeds  will 
be  kept  from  gaining  a  start.  The  first  few  weeks 
the  young  broom  corn  plants  grow  very  slowly,  and 
it  is  of  prime  importance  to  prevent  heavy  growth 
of  weeds  obtaining  a  foothold  before  the  plant  is 
big  enough  to  cultivate.  Ordinary  corn  cultivator 
machinery  is  used  in  caring  for  the  crop. 

Careful  Harvesting  Required. — The  time  for  har- 
vesting is  that  stage  when  the  fibers  of  the  broom 
have  completed  their  growth  and  before  the  stalk 
and  seed  have  begun  to  ripen.  When  the  seed  is 
in  what  is  known  as  the  dead  stage,  or  at  the  end 
of  the  milk  stage,  it  is  usually  the  proper  time  for 
cutting.  The  stalks  grow  so  high  that  they 
must  be  broken  before  it  is  possible  to  cut  the 
brush,  which  is  the  valuable  part  of  the  crop. 
This  is  done  by  hand  work,  one  man  breaking 
the  stalks  down  as  fast  as  two  men  can 
cut  the  brush.  The  breaker  walks  backward  be- 
tween the  two  rows,  bending  the  stalks  at  either 
hand  at  a  height  of  about  2^  or  3  feet  and  over- 
lapping them  in  such  a  way  as  to  form  a  continuous 
table  of  green,  fibrous  stalks.  On  this  table  the 
brushes  are  placed  as  they  are  cut  and  left  until 
partially  dry,  before  being  hauled  from  the  field. 
The  proper  length  for  cutting  the  brush  is  6  to  8 
inches  below  the  first  fibers,  so  as  to  leave  a  stalk 
of  at  least  6  inches  in  length  attached  to  each  broom. 
Anything  longer  than  this  will,  of  course,  increase 
the  tonnage  and  this  has  been,  in  some  cases,  one  of 


BROOM   CORN  III 

the  tricks  of  the  trade,  but  a  marked  amount  of  long 
stalks  in  a  bale  will  result  in  a  reduction  of  price. 

The  process  of  removing  the  seed  from  the  brush 
is  variously  termed  seeding,  scraping  or  threshing, 
and  consists  of  running  the  seed-laden  heads  through 
a  cylinder  similar  to  that  of  the  ordinary  threshing 
machine,  except  that  the  entire  brush  does  not  pass 
through,  only  the  head  being  subjected  to  the  scrap- 
ing process,  so  as  not  to  destroy  the  stalk  upon 
which  the  fibers  were  borne. 

When  thoroughly  dried,  the  brooms  are  baled 
and  these  bales  are  inclosed  with  rather  large, 
smooth  wire,  to  avoid  cutting  the  fibers,  and  usually 
weigh  about  320  pounds.  A  few  days  of  rain  or 
damp,  cloudy  weather  at  harvesting  time  may  re- 
duce the  value  of  the  crop  very  considerably.  Many 
farmers  who  continue  growing  broom  corn  year 
after  year  have  their  own  special  machinery  for 
handling  it.  In  such  cases  it  is  customary  to  cut 
a  certain  amount  of  broom  corn  during  the  early- 
part  of  the  day,  haul  it  to  the  house  and  thresh  it 
in  the  afternoon  and  evening,  so  that  the  brooms 
may  be  gotten  under  shelter  at  the  earliest  possible 
moment.  Leaving  part  of  the  cut  broom  corn  in 
the  field  overnight,  of  course,  exposes  it  to  the  pos- 
sibility of  heavy  dew  or  rain,  with  its  consequent 
bad  effects.  If  a  sufficient  force  of  men  is  at  hand 
to  cut  the  entire  crop  in  one  or  two  days,  and  then 
haul  in  and  thresh  immediately,  this  plan  is  fre- 
quently pursued. 

Crooked  Brush  Reduces  Values. — Probably  the 
greatest  factor  influencing  the  value  of  the  crop, 
aside  from  weather  conditions  and  curing  is  the 
number  of  crooked  stalks.  Heavy  dews  or  wet 
weather  during  the  maturing  stage  of  the  brush 


112 


BROOM    CORN  113 

often  result  in  making  large  numbers  of  stalks 
crooked,  because  of  the  weight  of  moisture  held 
by  the  head.  If  the  seed  is  allowed  to  mature  to 
too  great  an  extent,  and  thus  put  a  heavyweight 
upon  the  stalk,  this  also  will  result  in  crooked  stalks. 
The  marked  standard  is  half  price  for  crooked 
stalks  in  separate  bales.  If  these  crooked  brooms 
are  baled  with  straight  ones,  the  value  of  the  whole 
will  be  reduced  nearly  one-half.  The  seed  and  chaff 
removed  in  the  threshing  process  has  little  or  no 
feeding  value  and  is  usually  disposed  of  as  waste 
by  spreading  upon  the  ground,  or  even  by  burning 
when  dry. 

Improvement  in  the  quality  of  broom  corn  is 
brought  about  through  seed  selection.  A  small 
plat  planted  with  seed  selected  with  a  view  to  vigor- 
ous growing  plants  and  finely  developed  broom 
brushes,  would  probably  pay  on  every  farm  where 
broom  corn  is  grown.  By  this  means  the  quality 
of  the  seed  can  be  insured  and  less  danger  is  ex- 
perienced from  the  introduction  of  weeds  and  mixed 
varieties  of  broom  corn  than  by  using  imported  seed. 

The  principal  difference  between  the  standard  and 
dwarf  varieties  lies  in  the  size  of  the  plant  and 
length  of  fiber  of  the  broom.  The  dwarf  seems  to 
thrive  best  in  the  dry,  sandy  soil  of  the  Southwest 
and  produces  a  fiber  suitable  for  the  manufacture 
of  whisk  brooms  and  o+her  fine  grades,  while  the 
large,  standard  varieties  are  utilized  more  largely 
for  heavy  brooms,  for  use  on  pavements,  in 
barns,  etc. 

BROOM  CORN  MILLET.— See  Millets. 

BUCKWHEAT.— This  well-known  crop  is  used 
very  largely  as  a  human  food.  Chickens  and  other 
stock  share  to  a  limited  extent  and  frequently  the 


114  FARM    CROPS 

unharvested  crop  is  plowed  under  as  a  green 
manure  for  depleted  or  otherwise  worn-out  lands. 
Its  value  in  the  latter  instance  is  due  to  the  humus 
that  is  added  to  the  soil.  The  leading  buckwheat 
states  are  New  York  and  Pennsylvania.  The  crop 
will  grow  on  land  where  most  other  crops  would 
starve.  It  shares  with  rye  this  distinction  of  being 
a  poor  land  crop.  Its  best  yields  are  obtained  from 
fertile,  well-drained  and  sandy  loams.  Wheat  lands 
or  stiff  clays  never  attract  the  crop.  A  good  yield 
on  good  ground  is  about  40  bushels  to  the  acre, 
although  the  general  average  is  only  about  half 
this  amount.  Frost  destroys  buckwheat  and  there- 
fore its  season  of  growth  is  much  shorter  than  most 
other  farm  crops.  However,  75  days  are  usually 
enough  to  bring  it  to  maturity.  It  will  then  run 
from  2  to  2,y2  feet  in  height.  From  May  to  August 
is  the  usual  time  for  seeding  in  the  South,  and  from 
June  i  to  July  10  the  usual  time  in  the  North.  The 
seed  should  be  covered  about  2  inches  deep  and 
may  be  drilled  or  scattered  broadcast.  It  is  the 
latter  method  that  is  most  common.  About  a  half 
bushel  of  seed  is  used  to  the  acre.  The  general 
rule  is  that  the  better  the  land,  the  more  the  seed. 
The  soil  should  be  well  prepared  just  the  same  as 
for  other  small  grain  seeds. 

In  fertilizing,  potash,  phosphoric  acid  and  lime 
are  the  elements  most  in  demand  by  the  plant  and 
they  should  be  supplied  previous  to  seeding.  While 
considerable  manure  is  helpful,  it  is  usually  pre- 
ferred for  other  crops.  The  grain  ripens  unevenly, 
the  blossom  season  extending  over  a  period  of  two 
to  four  weeks  in  length.  A  good  rule  is  to  harvest 
just  after  the  first  seeds  have  ripened.  To  delay 
much  after  this  is  to  lose  this  ripened  seed.  After 


BUCKWHEAT  115 

being  cut  the  plant  is  loosely  bound  in  sheaves  and 
left  in  the  field  to  cure.  It  is  then  threshed  and 
without  stacking.  If  stacked,  it  tends  to  gather 
moisture  and  in  this  way  the  seed  is  injured. 

The  three  varieties  best  known  are  the  Silver  Hull, 
Japanese  and  the  Common.  At  the  Massachusetts 
station,  the  three  varieties  developed  in  about  74 
days  and  yielded  in  the  order  named.  The  Iowa 
station  states  that  the  Japanese  buckwheat  is  much 
superior  to  the  other  two  varieties.  There  seems 
to  be  little  difference  in  the  value  of  either  for 
making  flour.  The  use  of  buckwheat  as  a  poultry 
feed  is  becoming  more  popular  each  year,  perhaps 
due  to  the  success  that  poultrymen  in  France  have 
had  with  the  seed.  The  general  claim  seems  to  be 
that  buckwheat  promotes  egg  production  early  in 
the  winter  season  and  gives  a  good  flavor  to  the 
meat. 

BUR  CLOVER.— A  splendid  legume  for  improv- 
ing worn-out  lands.  It  is  grown  to  some  extent  in 
the  South,  but  not  nearly  so  much  as  it  should  be. 
It  is  an  annual,  having  15  to  60  branches  from  15 
to  30  inches  in  length.  The  flowers  are  yellow  and 
the  seed  is  borne  in  prickly  burs  with  three  to  five 
seeds  in  a  pod.  To  grow  bur  clover  successfully  on 
a  soil  that  has  never  grown  it  before,  it  is  generally 
unnecessary  to  resort  to  artificial  inoculation.  On 
such  land  soil  inoculation  will  generally  be  com- 
plete by  the  beginning  of  the  second  year.  If  the 
burs  are  not  gathered  up  from  the  soil,  bacteria  are 
abundantly  supplied.  This  crop  does  its  best  on 
the  heavier  types  of  sandy  soil  which  are  under- 
laid by  clay  subsoil  and  which  are  generally  moist, 
but  it  grows  well  on  the  lighter  types  of  sandy  soil 
as  well  as  on  soils  of  other  character. 


Il6  FARM    CROPS 

Where  it  is  to  be  sown  in  the  bur,  the  land  may 
be  prepared  as  for  grain  and  grass  crops.  In  the 
Southern  states  it  is  mainly  broadcasted  in  corn 
and  cotton  and  covered  at  the  last  cultivation  i  or  2 
inches  deep.  The  seed  may  be  sown  as  late  as  the 
middle  of  September.  Two  bushels  of  seed  will 
give  a  fair  stand  the  first  year,  after  which  it  is  not 
necessary  to  reseed,  if  the  crop  is  given  proper 
treatment  and  opportunity  to  mature  seed.  After 
it  has  matured  seed,  other  crops  may  follow. 
Orchards  may  be  cultivated  and  later  planted  in 
peas  in  case  this  is  desired.  This  procedure  en- 
riches the  land  and  at  small  cost.  Liberal  applica- 
tions of  acid  phosphate  and  potash  salts  should  be 
used  in  connection  with  soil  improvers  like  bur 
clover  and  the  other  legumes. 

CANADA  FIELD  PEAS.— See  Field  Peas. 

CARROTS.— -These  plants  start  very  slowly  and 
hence  the  land  should  be  free  from  weeds  and  a  fine 
compacted  seed  bed  allotted  them  from  the  very 
beginning.  The  ideal  soil  is  a  deep,  well-pulver- 
ized sandy  loam  rather  abundantly  supplied  with 
potash  and  nitrogen.  Some  growers  start  germina- 
tion before  planting.  To  do  this  the  seed  is  placed 
in  a  box  in  a  warm  room  and  daily  moistened  with 
warm  water  for  several  days  until  the  germination 
begins.  The  seed  is  then  dried  in.  sand  and  sown. 
From  4  to  6  pounds  to  the  acre  is  the  usual  allot- 
ment. The  rows  should  be  about  2^  feet  apart. 
When  the  plants  are  large  enough  the  crop  is 
thinned  and  the  weeds  destroyed. 

Carrots  are  a  splendid  feed  for  horses  when 
cereal  grains  like  corn  and  oats  are  fed.  The  good 
secured  is  really  more  than  the  nutrient  suggests. 
The  succulence  and  juices  contained  in  carrots  pos- 


CARROTS 


117 


sess  a  dietary  value  that  should  not  be  ignored  in 
feeding  live  stock.  The  crop  is  usually  harvested 
by  hand  pulling  and  topping.  This  work  can  be 
facilitated  by  running  a  plow  along  both  sides  of 


CARROT 

In  the  wild  state  the  carrot  is  a  bad  weed,  but 
the  improved  varieties  are  excellent  for  table  use 
and  tfeey  form  a  favorite  succulent  food  for  horses 
and  dairy  cows.  The  most  suitable  soil  is  a  deep, 
mellow,  rich  loam,  free  from  weed  seed.  Carrots 
are  a  great  favorite  with  many  horse  breeders. 

the  row.  From  200  to  400  bushels  are  produced 
to  the  acre.  The  storing  is  usually  in  pits  like 
potatoes.  On  account  of  the  large  amount  of  hand 
labor  required  in  growing  the  crop  the  acreage 
given  each  year  is  very  limited. 


Il8  FARM   CROPS 

CASSAVA. — There  are  two  varieties  of  this 
plant,  the  bitter  and  the  sweet.  In  the  former 
hydrocyanic  acid  is  found  in  the  roots  and  is,  there- 
fore, poisonous.  It  is  grown  mostly  in  the  tropics. 
The  sweet  variety  is  non-poisonous,  and  because  of 
its  large  starch  content  is  a  splendid  stock  food. 
Cassava  has  as  yet  received  no  extensive  use  as  a 
farm  crop  outside  of  Florida,  but  it  has  possibilities 
in  other  gulf  states.  It  is  now  commercially  grown 
for  starch  as  well  as  a  stock  food  and  so  satisfac- 
tory have  been  the  tests  made  of  it  that  its  use 
should  be  greatly  extended. 

The  commercial  value  is  in  the  roots,  or,  more 
properly,  the  enlarged  underground  stems.  These 
run  from  I  inch  to  3  inches  in  diameter  and  from 
I  to  4  feet  in  length  and  contain  about  20  per  cent 
of  starch  and  about  3  per  cent  of  sugar.  The 
Florida  experiment  station  says  that  cassava  comes 
nearer  furnishing  the  Florida  farmer  with  a  univer- 
sally profitable  crop  than  any  other  which  he  can 
grow  on  equally  large  areas.  It  can  be  utilized  in 
more  ways,  it  can  be  sold  in  more  different  forms, 
it  can  be  cheaply  converted  into  staple  and  finished 
products  and  can  be  produced  for  a  smaller  part 
of  its  selling  price  than  any  other  crop. 

Land  for  cassava  should  be  prepared  in  about  the 
same  way  as  that  for  corn.  Rows  4  feet  apart  are 
plowed  out  and  in  these  rows  the  seed  or  canes  are 
dropped  and  covered  by  a  turn  plow  or  some  sim- 
ilar implement.  The  canes  are  used  for  seed, 
being  cut  in  sections  from  4  to  6  inches  in  length. 
The  first  cultivation  after  the  plants  are  up  should 
be  deep,  and  subsequent  cultivations  should  be 
shallow  and  frequent,  as  for  corn.  After  a  few 
weeks,  the  plants  assume  a  shrublike  appearance, 


CASSAVA  119 

when  it  is  impossible  to  further  cultivate.  If  a 
row  of  cowpeas  be  planted  between  the  rows,  the 
fertility  of  the  cassava  land  can  be  maintained. 

When  the  plants  are  mature,  the  tops  are  cut  off 
5  or  6  inches  from  the  ground  with  a  corn  knife  or 
hoe  and  the  roots  then  pulled  out.  In  sandy  soils 
this  can  be  done  easily  by  hand,  but  in  the  stiffer, 
tighter  soils  they  may  need  first  to  be  loosened  by 
means  of  a  shovel.  It  is  the  usual  custom  to  leave 
the  roots  in  the  soil  until  used.  If  drawn  out  and 
stored,  their  value  is  lessened.  From  5  to  8  tons 
are  produced  to  the  acre.  In  feeding  experiments, 
conducted  at  the  Florida  station,  cassava  has  proven 
the  superior  of  corn,  chufas  or  peanuts  for  fatten- 
ing pigs,  a  pound  of  pork  being  produced  with 
cassava  at  a  cost  of  about  one  cent,  or  at  a  price 
about  one-third  that  of  other  food  stuffs.  Starch 
is  the  conspicuous  constituent  in  cassava.  It  is 
evident  that  best  results  are  secured  when  some 
nitrogenous  food  like  clover  or  peas  is  fed  in  con- 
nection with  the  cassava  to  more  evenly  balance 
the  ration. 

CHUFA.— This  plant  is  used  slightly  as  a  field 
crop  in  the  South  and  is  in  especially  good  favor  as 
a  food  for  hogs.  The  parts  that  are  valuable  are 
the  underground  tubers,  which  are  known  as  nuts. 
They  are  usually  eaten  raw,  the  hogs  doing  the  har- 
vesting. Sometimes  they  are  baked.  The  tubers 
are  oblong,  one-fourth  to  one  inch  in  length,  and 
hard.  For  feeding  purposes  the  crop  ranks  close 
to  corn  and  is  considered  superior  to  soy  beans  or 
cowpeas.  The  yield  is  large,  varying  from  100  to 
200  bushels  an  acre.  The  crop  is  propagated  by 
means  of  the  tubers.  These  are  usually  planted 
singly  2  inches  deep,  10  to  15  inches  apart  in  rows, 


I2O  FARM    CROPS 

the  rows  themselves  being  placed  2  to  3  feet  apart. 
The  crop  is  planted  in  the  spring  about  the  same 
time  as  corn  and  is  harvested  in  the  fall.  If  the 
tubers  are  left  in  the  ground  and  not  harvested 
they  will  grow  the  following  spring. 

CLUB  WHEAT.— Wheat  with  a  square  head 
and  very  short  and  compact.  It  is  a  variety  popu- 
lar in  the  Western  states,  where  the  grain  remains 
in  the  field  until  quite  ripe.  It  does  not  tend  to 
shatter  like  common  wheat  and  the  stiffness  of  the 
straw  makes  it  less  liable  to  lodge.  It  is  admirably 
adapted  to  regions  where  the  combined  header  and 
thresher  are  used.  Both  bearded  and  bald  and 
spring  and  winter  varieties  are  grown.  The  chief 
advantage  of  growing  this  wheat  lies  in  the  fact 
that  harvesting  may  be  done  long  after  ripening 
without  any  loss  from  shattering. 

COMMON  RED  CLOVER.— See  Red  Clover. 

COMMON  MILLET.— See  Millet. 

CRIMSON  CLOVER.— An  annual  sown  in  the 
late  summer  or  early  fall,  reaching  maturity  in  the 
springtime  of  the  following  year.  It  is  quite  up- 
right in  its  habit  of  growth ;  more  so  than  the  other 
clovers  and  has  a  less  proportion  of  leaf  growth  to 
the  stems.  It  grows  from  12  to  30  inches  high  and 
reaches  maturity  in  time  for  spring  crops  like  corn 
and  vegetables.  The  blossom  is  crimson  or  scar- 
let, from  which  quality  it  gets  its  name.  Its  dis- 
tribution is  more  limited  than  the  common  red 
variety  and  is  most  commonly  grown  in  the  South- 
ern states.  Sandy  soils  are  most  fancied  by  it.  It 
has  been  grown  all  along  the  Atlantic  shore,  but  in 
the  cold,  clay  lands  it  does  not  do  well,  preferring 
when  brought  into  the  more  northern  climes  sandy 
loams  that  are  open  and  relatively  warm. 


CP.IMSON    CLOVER 


121 


In  the  rotation  system  crimson  clover  should  be 
grown  as  a  catch  crop.  It  can  succeed  a  crop  har- 
vested one  season  and  be  away  in  time  for  another 
crop  the  following  spring.  It  can  succeed  cowpeas 
or  wheat  or  potatoes  and  is  a  splendid  crop  to  be 
seeded  at  the  last  cultivation  of  corn  or  cotton.  It 
is  much  prized  in  orchards  where  it  can  be  seeded 
in  the  late  summer  and 
plowed  under  in  the  early 
spring,  thus  permitting  cul- 
tivation during  the  growing 
season  when  the  moisture  is 
desired  for  the  trees  rather 
than  for  grass  or  other 
crops.  A  good  seed  bed  is 
always  desirable,  although 
crimson  clover  may  be  sown 
on  any  kind  of  land,  provid- 
ing the  seed  is  covered.  The 
peg-tooth  harrow  is  an  ex- 
cellent tool  to  give  proper 
covering.  In  preparing  the 
soil  the  aim  should  be  to 
secure  a  fine,  compact  and 
moist  seed  bed.  If  plow- 
ing be  done  just  previous 
to  seeding,  the  harrow  and 
roller  should  be  freely  used,  so  as  to  secure  a 
compact  bed. 

CORN.— The  first  thing  is  to  see  that  the  ground 
is  in  good  condition  and  that  the  field  intended  for 
corn  is  given  thorough  preparation.  The  best  re- 
sults are  usually  secured  on  clover  sod.  This  kind 
of  land  is  full  of  plant  food,  contains  a  large  amount 
of  nitrogen  and  is  usually  in  splendid  tilth.  The 


CRIMSON    CLOVER 

Most  popular  in  the 
South  for  land-improv- 
ing effects.  It  is  seeded 
in  the  fall  and  either 
plowed  under  preceding 
corn  or  cotton  or  har- 
vested for  hay  and  then 
followed  by  corn.  It  gives 
results  in  or- 


122  FARM   CROPS 

depth  of  plowing  depends,  of  course,  upon  the  char- 
acter of  the  soil  and  the  locality. 

After  the  soil  has  been  plowed,  the  matter  of 
thoroughly  fining  it  is  highly  important.  The  disk 
has  given  excellent  service  in  the  corn  belt,  also  the 
Acme  harrow.  The  roller  can  seldom  be  used,  as 
this  packs  the  ground  too  much,  especially  if  plant- 
ing is  followed  by  a  heavy  rain  or  two.  Plan  to 
have  the  upper  soil  as  mellow  as  possible,  so  as  to 
give  the  seed  an  early  and  a  strong  start.  In  many 
parts  of  the  country  it  has  been  found  exceedingly 
profitable  to  disk  the  corn  ground  before  plowing. 
This  forms  a  soil  mulch  and  prevents  rapid  drying 
out. 

Whether  to  plow  in  the  fall  or  spring  will  de- 
pend upon  the  character  of  the  land.  If  the  field 
happens  to  be  hard  and  cloddy  for  any  reason  it  is 
very  desirable  to  fall  plow.  Frequently,  however, 
fall-plowed  land  has  to  be  replowed  again  in  the 
spring.  Many  people  plow  in  the  autumn  and  early 
winter,  as  they  then  have  more  time  for  this  kind 
of  work.  It  lightens  the  farmer's  labor  in  the 
early  spring.  Where  soils  do  not  wash,  fall  plow- 
ing is  very  satisfactory. 

Selection  of  Seed. — When  the  ground  has  been 
prepared  in  this  thorough  manner,  the  next  im- 
portant step  is  the  selection  of  the  seed.  In  choos- 
ing seed  corn  the  important  point  is  to  get  ears  of 
the  desired  type  and  kernels  that  have  a  high  state 
of  vitality.  If  the  corn  has  been  preserved  care- 
fully during  the  winter  and  kept  in  a  room  where 
there  is  plenty  of  circulation  and  if  it  had  been 
gathered  early  enough  in  the  fall  there  ought  to  be 
no  trouble  about  poor  seed.  Choose  ears  of  medium 
size  and  wedge-shaped  kernels.  Shell  the  butts 


CORN  123 

and  tips  of  the  ears  and  discard  these.  These  ker- 
nels, as  a  rule,  will  grow  as  well  as  the  others,  but 
in  doing  the  planting  it  is  very  necessary,  in  order 
to  secure  an  even  stand,  that  the  kernels  be  of  uni- 
form size ;  consequently,  discard  the  large  kernels 
from  the  butts  and  the  small  ones  from  the  tips. 
After  this  has  been  done,  the  corn  is  shelled  and  it 
is  ready  for  the  planter. 

It  is  not  only  necessary  that  the  seed  be  from 
ears  of  the  desired  type  and  that  the  germ  will 
grow,  but  it  is  also  very  important  that  the  germ 
have  a  high  vitality,  which  will  enable  it  to  grow 
rapidly  and  mature  a  crop  early.  Where  drouths 
are  liable  to  occur  late  in  the  growing  season,  this 
early  start  is  a  very  important  matter.  Then,  too, 
vigorous,  healthy  seed  always  produces  a  much 
better  crop  than  seed  with  a  lower  vitality. 

To  determine  whether  or  not  seed  has  a  high 
vitality,  select  100  kernels,  place  them  in  a  saucer 
full  of  sand  or  soil,  moisten  and  put  in  a  warm 
room,  with  a  temperature  of  70  to  75  degrees.  Look 
at  it  from  day  to  day.  If  the  kernels  sprout  within 
four  or  live  days  and  the  germs  come  out  uniformly, 
you  may  be  pretty  sure  that  the  seed  has  a  high 
vitality.  If  90  kernels  out  of  100  sprout,  you  may 
consider  your  seed  almost  perfect. 

Planting  and  Cultivation. — The  thickness  of 
planting  is  a  matter  of  opinion.  On  a  good  soil, 
three  kernels  to  the  hill,  using  the  ordinary  check- 
row planter,  is  very  satisfactory.  However,  large 
yields  often  result  from  five  kernels  to  the  hill.  The 
ears  are  smaller,  making  it  more  difficult  to  husk, 
consequently  thinner  planting  is  much  more  satis- 
factory. This  also  depends  somewhat  upon  the 
variety  of  corn.  Corn  with  a  small  stalk  and  a 


124 


FARM    CROPS 


small  ear  can  be  planted  much  more  thickly  than 
corn  with  large  stalks,  a  great  abundance  of  leaves 
and  large  ears.  Some  people  like  to  drill  corn, 
but  most  think  it  is  absolutely  necessary  to  check 
it  in  order  to  give  the  corn  the  best  cultivation  and 
keep  the  land  free  from  weeds. 

Begin  early  so  as  not  to  allow  the  weeds  to  get 
a  start.  A  smoothing  harrow  or  any  of  the  numer- 
ous weeders  now  on 
the  market  are  excel- 
lent for  early  cultiva- 
tion. If  a  heavy  rain 
comes  directly  after 
planting,  go  over  the 
field  with  a  harrow  or 
weeder  just  as  soon  as 
the  surface  becomes 
crusted.  This  weeder 
can  be  used  until  the 
corn  is  3  or  4  inches 
high,  going  over  the 
field  as  often  as  neces- 
sary. It  is  much  bet- 
ter to  spend  a  good 
deal  of  time  on  early 
cultivation  than  to  wait 
until  the  weeds  get  a 
start,  or  until  the  rapid  growth  of  the  corn  is  checked 
by  a  caked  surface.  When  the  weeder  can  no  longer 
be  used,  take  an  ordinary  two-horse  cultivator,  with 
three  or  four  shovels  on  each  shank,  and  cultivate 
about  2  inches  deep,  quite  close  to  the  plant. 

By  examining  the  root  system  of  corn,  you  will 
find  that  the  roots  of  the  young  plant  do  not  extend 
over  the  entire  surface  at  the  earlier  stages  and  the 


SHOCKING  CORN 

Most  corn  is  carried  from  the 
row  to  the  shock  in  a  haphazard 
manner.  To  save  steps  is  an  in- 
cident seldom  considered.  Dif- 
ferent plans  are  used  by  cutters; 
the  one  here  shows  how  the  work 
can  be  very  advantageously  done. 


CORN 


125 


growth  is  not  seriously  injured  by  comparatively 
deep  cultivation  the  first  time.  At  subsequent  cul- 
tivations it  is  desirable  to  cultivate  more  shallow 
and  keep  the  shovels. 7  or  8  inches  from  the  plant. 
The  deep  cultivation  should  come  early,  so  that  the 
upper  surface  of  the  seed  bed  will  be  loose  and 
mellow,  thus  preventing  rapid  evaporation  of  mois- 
ture. Later  this  deep  stirring  is  not  so  necessary. 
Cultivate  Corn  Thoroughly. — The  corn  plant  will 
not  thrive  among  weeds,  nor  in  a  hard  packed,  dry 
soil.  The  object  of  cultivation  is  to  keep  the  soil 
in  proper  con- 
dition for  the 
growth  of  the 
corn.  The  weeds 
will  all  be  rooted 
up  in  properly 
cultivating  the 
corn.  It  is  not 
essential  as  to 
how  deep  or  how 
shallow  or  how 
often  the  corn 
is  cultivated,  as 
it  is  that  it  is 
cultivated  when 
it  needs  it.  Es- 


CORN   CULTIVATOR 
A  necessary  implement  for  the  corn- 
field.     The   many   fine    cultivating   teeth 
are  quite  a  contrast  to  the  old  methods 
peciaily      alter   of    corn    culture    of   many   decades    ago. 


«,  «».      U~  ~«:~  Then  it  used  to  be  that  farmers  plowed 

every    neavy  rain  corn;  now  they  cultivate  it  to  keep  the 

thp>  cr^il  ic  nartrprl  weeds  out,   to  mellow  the  earth,  and  to 

paCKCd  conserve  the  moisture. 

and    should     be 

stirred  as  soon  as  dry  enough.  Cultivation  must 
continue  during  the  whole  growing  season — and  not 
stop  with  the  third  or  fourth  time  over.  The  larger 
varieties,  especially,  must  be  cultivated  with  one- 


126  FARM    CROPS 

horse  after  the  corn  is  too  big  for  the  two-horse  cul- 
tivators. A  hard,  baked  crust  should  never  be  al- 
lowed to  form  in  the  cornfield  until  after  the  corn 
is  in  the  roasting  ear.  Give  shallow,  close  cultiva- 
tion while  the  corn  is  young  and  deeper  and  farther 
from  the  hills  as  the  corn  gets  older. 

However,  if  on  account  of  unfavorable  weather, 
the  corn  gets  weedy,  any  kind  of  cultivation  that 
destroys  the  weeds  most  effectively  is  best.  The 
kind  and  condition  of  the  soil  must  determine  the 
kind  of  cultivator.  The  disk  does  best  in  one  place, 
the  eagle  claw  in  another,  and  the  two,  three  and 
four-shovel  gangs  also  have  their  places.  On  good, 
clean,  well-drained  land  the  two-row  riding  cul- 
tivators can  be  used  to  great  advantage,  while  on 
rough  or  stumpy  or  stony  land  the  two-shovel 
spring  trip  gang  walking,  or  even  the  one-horse 
double  shovel,  and  the  hoe,  must  be  resorted  to. 
Keep  the  soil  stirred  and  the  weeds  subdued. 

Cultivating  Corn  the  Last  Time. — It  oftens  hap- 
pens that  after  the  corn  has  been  laid  by,  heavy, 
dashing  rains  compact  the  surface  soil,  and  when 
the  ground  dries  out  it  cracks.  Evaporation  then 
begins  to  take  place  rapidly  and  unless  something 
is  done  to  recreate  the  soil  mulch,  the  yield  will 
be  seriously  curtailed.  Some  growers  have  used 
a  sort  of  spading  harrow  just  wide  enough  to  go 
between  two  rows.  It  is  drawn  by  one  horse,  and 
with  it  6  to  8  acres  a  day  can  be  gone  over  when 
the  corn  is  so  large  that  it  cannot  be  worked  with 
the  ordinary  cultivator.  It  pays  to  give  this  extra 
working,  as  the  difference  in  yield  sometimes 
amounts  to  as  much  as  8  bushels  to  the  acre.  The 
harrow  can  be  a  section  of  an  ordinary  spading 
harrow,  or  any  kind  of  an  implement  that  will  break 


CORN  127 

up  the  crust  to  a  depth  of  I  to  2  inches.  Just  be- 
fore the  last  working  it  frequently  pays  to  sow 
seeds  of  cowpeas,  soy  beans  or  crimson  clover  to 
act  as  gatherers  of  nitrogen.  If  the  cornfield  can 
be  pastured  after  the  crop  has  been  removed,  farm 
animals  can  find  a  great  deal  of  excellent  feed  from 
a  crop  sowed  just  before  the  last  cultivation. 

One  of  the  important  items  in  keeping  the  farm 
clean  is  to  go  through  the  field  about  tasseling 
time  and  pull  out  any  noxious  weeds  that  may  be 
about  ready  to  seed.  This  is  necessary  more  es- 
pecially with  velvet  leaf,  cocklebur,  jimson  weed, 
dock,  milkweed  and  the  like.  Some  farmers  feel 
that  after  the  last  cultivation  the  corn  crop  can  take 
care  of  itself.  While  in  a  sense  this  is  true,  it  must 
be  looked  after  very  carefully.  Weeds  must  be 
kept  down  around  the  outer  edge  so  that  s-eeds  will 
not  be  distributed  through  the  field.  Fences  must 
be  looked  after  so  that  stock  cannot  get  in  and 
destroy  the  maturing  grain.  Then,  as  noted  above, 
the  effect  of  heavy  rains  must  be  counteracted  if 
possible. 

Field  Selection  of  Seed. — Seed  corn  should  be 
selected  from  the  stalk  in  the  field  and  not  from 
the  crib  or  from  the  shock  at  husking  time.  Ears 
selected  from  the  crib  or  from  the  shock  are  not 
always  as  valuable  for  seed  as  their  appearance 
would  indicate.  The  splendid  appearance  of  such 
ears  may  be  due  entirely  to  the  favorable  condition 
under  which  they  grew. 

If  we  could  trace  these  ears  of  fine  appearance 
back  to  the  field,  we  would  find  that  a  great  ma- 
jority of  them  had  come  from  a  plant  where  there 
was  but  one  stalk  in  a  hill,  or  where  there  were 
many  missing  stalks  in  the  drill  row.  Where  this 


128  FARM    CROPS 

was  the  case,  the  ear  had  grown  extra  large  and 
fine  in  appearance,  because  the  plant  upon  which 
it  grew  had  been  favored  with  all  of  the  plant  food, 
all  of  the  moisture  and  all  of  the  sunshine  that 
should  have  gone  to  two  or  three  stalks. 

Make  the  selection  just  before  the  corn  is  cut  by 
passing  through  the  field  and  spotting  the  desir- 
able ears  with  paint.  At  husking  time  it  is  then 
easy  to  identify  and  separate  them.  If  the  corn  is 
to  be  husked  from  the  standing  stalks,  the  selection 
is  made  just  in  advance  of  the  huskers  by  passing 
through  the  field  with  a  basket  or  sack,  the  select- 
ing and  husking  being  done  at  the  same  time.  In 
either  case,  select  ears  only  from  stalks  that  are 
growing  under  ordinary  average  conditions  of 
stand.  Good  ears  growing  under  normal  field  con- 
ditions owe  whatever  excellency  they  possess  to 
some  hereditary  force  residing  in  the  mother  plant. 
These  hereditary  qualities  are  transmitted  by  the 
plant  to  the  ear,  which,  when  planted,  will  have  a 
tendency  to  perpetuate  the  good  qualities  of  the 
parent  ear. 

Ears  which  owe  their  excellency  to  favorable  sur- 
roundings alone  will  not  transmit  their  good  quali- 
ties unless  the  favorable  conditions  are  present  the 
next  season.  The  Ohio  experiment  station  has 
conducted  careful  experiments  along  this  line  in 
order  to  determine  the  actual  gain  in  production 
that  might  be  secured  by  the  field  selection  of  seed 
corn.  Ears  were  selected  from  plants  growing  in 
the  field  under  normal  conditions  of  stand  compared 
with  ears  of  the  same  variety  and  from  the  same 
field,  but  selected  from  the  wagon  instead  of  from 
the  stalks  before  husking.  The  ears  selected  from 
the  wagon  were  larger  in  size  and  of  better  appear- 


CORN  129 

ance  than  those  selected  from  the  stalk.  Corn  from 
the  two  selections  when  planted  side  by  side  showed 
an  average  gain  for  two  years  of  3.8  bushels  an 
acre  in  favor  of  the  plant-selected  seed. 

Another  thing  in  favor  of  the  field  selection  is 
the  power  to  overcome  or  counteract  undesirable 
characteristics  in  the  plant.  On  rich,  first  bottom 
soil  the  corn  has  a  tendency  to  grow  very  tall  and 
to.  produce  the  ears  high  up  on  the  stalk.  This  is 
undesirable,  as-  it  makes  the  corn  difficult  to  handle 
and  increase  the  tendency  to  go  down  during  heavy 
windstorms.  In  field  selections  on  such  a  land, 
pass  by  the  ears  that  are  above  your  heads  and 
select  only  those  that  are  produced  at  a  desirable 
height  on  the  stalk. 

In  the  field,  make  the  selection  of  seed  ears  with 
respect  to  normal  stand,  vigor  of  plant  and  the 
height  of  the  ear  on  the  stalk.  In  the  sorting  after 
husking,  make  the  selection  with  reference  to  ma- 
turity, conformation  to  type  and  seed  condition. 
If  the  storage  capacity  is  sufficiently  large  this  final 
sorting  and  selection  may  be  delayed  until  a  con- 
venient time  in  the  winter  or  early  spring,  other- 
wise it  should  be  done  as  the  corn  is  placed  on  the 
drying  racks.  In  order  to  do  this  final  sorting 
effectively  and  make  an  intelligent  selection,  have 
in  mind  an  ideal  ear  and  make  all  selections  with 
this  ideal  in  view.  Color,  shape  of  ear  and  other 
physical  characteristics  are  considered  and  made  to 
conform  to  the  true  ideal  as  nearly  as  possible. 
Discard  all  ears  that  are  chaffy  and  immature.  Very 
smooth,  flinty  ears  are  to  be  avoided  because  they 
usually  have  shallow  grains  and  a  low  proportion 
of  grain  to  cob. 

Trie  selected  corn  should  be  taken  to  a  dry,  well- 


130 


FARM    CROPS 


ventilated  storage  room  and  placed  on  drying  racks. 
If  allowed  to  remain  in  the  bags  or  in  a  pile  on  the 
floor,  the  drying  of  the  corn  is  retarded  and  as  a 
consequence  the  ears  may  show  lack  of  vitality  the 


SHOCKING  CORN 

Where  large  quantities  of  corn  are  grown,  the  common 
method  of  shocking  is  to  take  four  stalks  as  pictured  here  and 
to  tie  at  the  top,  around  which  bundles  are  set.  Some  use 
the  corn  horse  for  the  shocks.  After  starting  the  shocks  the 
frame  is  withdrawn  and  the  shock  completed.  For  cutting 
corn  different  styles  of  knives  are  used,  depending  on  the  pref- 
erence of  the  cutters.  The  real  art  of  building  shocks  that 
will  stand  consists  of  having  the  bundles  set  straight  and  the 
shocks  securely  tied  when  completed. 

following  spring.  It  is  of  the  utmost  importance 
to  keep  seed  corn  from  freezing,  especially  while  it 
is  still  damp. 

Preventing  Damage  by  Crows. — Place  a  quantity 
of  strychnine  the  size  of  a  grain  of  wheat  in  a  wide- 
mouthed  bottle  and  fill  the  bottle  about  one-half  to 


CORN  131 

two-thirds  full  of  shelled  corn,  then  fill  with  water. 
Shake  the  bottle  to  dissolve  the  strychnine,  and  let 
it  stand  two  days,  until  the  grain  has  swelled  and 
absorbed  the  strychnine  solution. 

Just  as  the  corn  is  coming  up,  or  when  the  crows 
begin  to  pull  it,  scatter  this  poisoned  corn  broad- 
cast over  the  field  either  in  the  form  of  a  long  line 
or  cross  in  the  center  of  the  field  or  a  large  circle. 
When  the  crows  alight  in  the  field  they  will  pick 
up  this  poisoned  corn  before  they  will  take  the 
trouble  to  pull  the  planted  corn,  and  the  first  crow 
that  eats  this  corn  will  shortly  feel  the  effect  of 
the  poison  and  start  for  the  woods.  In  doing  so 
he  utters  peculiar  cries  or  squawks,  and  sometimes 
will  drop  dead  in  his  flight.  Again,  he  may  alight 
on  a  fence  or  adjacent  tree,  but  before  dying  he 
usually  has  made  such  a  fuss  that  other  crows 
understand  fully  what  the  trouble  is.  Of  course, 
the  larger  the  flock  that  is  with  him  the  better,  for 
they  will  all  reach  the  conclusion  that  corn  in  the 
field  is  not  proper  to  eat.  It  may  be  necessary  to 
repeat  the  operation  in  a  week  or  so,  or  perhaps 
sooner,  if  new  crows  visit  the  section.  There  are 
great  numbers  of  crows  wherever  corn  is  grown 
and  the  damage  they  do  is  often  very  great.  To 
save  the  corn  destroy  the  crows. 

Putting  Corn  in  Shocks. — Corn  will  dry  out  bet- 
ter if  the  shocks  are  kept  down  to  a  reasonable 
size.  From  100  to  144  hills  are  usually  enough, 
especially  if  the  stalks  are  not  exceedingly  large. 
When  husking  time  is  at  hand,  the  corn  ought  to 
be  fairly  well  dried  out.  Instead  of  putting  the 
fodder  of  each  shock  by  itself,  set  two  or  three 
together.  The  fodder  will  keep  in  fine  condition 
and  later  on  will  turn  out  bright  and  free  from  mold. 


I32 


FARM    CROPS 


If  the  corn  shocks  are  to  be  hauled  to  the  barn 
and  husked  and  shredded  by  a  machine,  let  a  good 
frost  or  two  first  have  a  whack  at  the  corn  in  the 
shock.  A  good  freezing  of  stalk  will  do  away  with 
much  trouble  that  ordinarily  is  found  with  shredded 
stover  when  stored  in  the  barn  or  shed.  My  ex- 
perience is  in  favor  of  the  shredder,  but  I  early 


SHOCKING   CORN   BY   MACHINERY 

This  implement  builds  the  shock  on  a  platform  as  illus- 
trated. When  the  shock  is  completed,  it  is  transferred  from 
the  machine  to  the  ground  by  means  of  a  derrick.  The  shocks 
are  placed  in  rows. 

learned  that  early  shredding,  before  the  season  of 
frost  and  ice  was  on  good  and  hard,  is  not  to  be 
desired.  I  have  since  delayed  the  work  until  early 
winter,  and  I  have  not  one  bit  of  personal  testi- 
mony against  shredded  stover. 


CORN  133 

Husking  from  Standing  Stalks. — It  is  in  the  West 
and  South  only  that  stalk  husking  is  to  any  extent 
done.  But  the  end  is  in  sight  for  it  in  both  sec- 
tions. It  is  too  great  a  waste  for  economical,  wise 
farmers  to  approve.  There  has  been  reason  for  the 
practice  in  the  West,  because  of  large  acreage  and 
little  labor.  This,  however,  is  righting  itself.  Crop 
rotation  is  working  a  change  that  will  not  only 
make  farming  pay  better,  but  will  increase  the  value 
of  the  corn  crop. 

While  cattle  and  horses  secure  much  feed  from 
fields  after  the  corn  is  husked,  they  nevertheless 
leave  much,  because  frost  has  bit  stalk  and  leaf 
and  maturity  has  hardened  and  made  unpalatable 
the  penned-in  food  of  the  dry,  hard,  wooden 
stalk. 

Hogging  Off  Corn. — While  the  practice  of  getting 
fall  hogs  ready  for  market  by  turning  into  the  corn- 
field while  still  green  is  not  new,  it  is  a  method  not 
generally  followed.  There  is  a  feeling  that  hogging 
off  is  wasteful  and  poor  economy  of  labor  and 
effort.  But  I  have  not  found  this  to  be  true.  The 
facts  clearly  indicate  that  the  custom  economizes 
labor  and  expense  and  the  hogs  do  better.  And 
that  is  the  point — you  get  the  most  pork  at  the  least 
expenditure  of  money.  And  what  is  more,  the  prac- 
tice is  past  the  experimental  stage.  Practical  farm- 
ers have  proven  it  through  their  own  experience ; 
and  our  experiment  stations  have  verified  these 
conclusions. 

Not  only  do  hogs  produce  more  with  less  grain 
in  hogging  off,  but  they  actually  mature  in  less 
time  than  when  pen  fed.  It  is  not  unusual  to  save  at 
least  a  quarter  of  the  fattening  period  where  this 
method  is  followed.  I  have  found  also  that  it  is 


134  FARM    CROPS 

just  as  easy  to  prepare  land  for  a  subsequent  crop 
after  a  corn  crop  has  been  taken  by  hogs  as  when 
corn  was  removed  in  the  ordinary  way.  Nor  have 
I  found  that  hogs  waste  a  bit  more  grain  by  hog- 
ging off  than  there  is  lost  by  ordinary  husking. 
Hogs  pick  just  about  as  clean  as  huskers. 

The  labor  item  is  not  inconsiderable,  either.  A 
five  to  ten-acre  field  of  good  corn  will  carry  50  to  75 
hogs  from  the  shote  to  the  finished  period.  Of 
course,  the  nature  of  the  corn — whether  the  crop  is 
heavy  or  light — will  govern  the  number  of  hogs 
that  can  be  fed  in  this  way,  but  you  can  be  certain 
that  the  total  quantity  of  pork  produced  from  a 
given  acreage  when  hogged  off  will  be  greater  than 
when  husked  ears  or  snapped  corn  is  fed  in  pens. 

Young  hogs,  weighing  80  to  125  pounds,  are  best 
to  use  in  the  green  cornfield.  At  this  age  they  are 
mature  enough  to  do  their  best ;  they  possess  good 
frames  and  carry  enough  flesh  to  fatten  in  a  few 
weeks  and  at  the  same  time  be  just  ready  for  mar- 
ket. Of  course,  brood  sows  will  make  good  use  of 
green  corn  also.  When  thin  from  suckling  or  for 
any  cause  unthrifty,  they  will  quickly  flesh  up  and 
improve  and  be  ready  for  market  in  from  30  to 
50  days. 

While  corn  may  be  hogged  off  at  any  period,  it  is 
best  to  let  it  mature  somewhat.  Then  you  get  all 
there  is  in  the  crop.  If  the  ordinary  summer  pas- 
ture is  short,  give  some  additional  feed  like  shorts 
and  middlings  in  slop  to  tide  along  until  the  corn  is 
fairly  well  developed.  When  it  has  passed  the  milk 
stage,  and  is  somewhat  dented,  turn  in ;  the  hogs 
will  do  the  rest. 

Movable  fences  are  to  be  desired  that  the  hogs 
may  be  kept  from  running  over  the  entire  field, 


CORN  135 

When  used,  you  need  not  make  more  than  two  or 
three  movings  during  the  time  the  hogs  have  the 
field.  This  makes  the  hogs  clean  up  as  they  move 
along.  But  circumstances  will  govern  as  to 
whether  you  ought  to  use  such  fences  or  not.  You 
will  have  to  take  expense,  soil,  nature  of  the  sea- 
son and  length  of  feeding  period  into  account.  To 
give  the  entire  field  over  to  the  hogs  is  the  general 
practice  when  labor  is  high,  the  soil  not  wet,  and 
the  herd  and  field  not  large  in  size.  Use  old  hogs, 
stock  hogs  and  brood  sows  for  cleaning  up  after  the 
fattening  bunch  has  been  taken  away.  There  won't 
be  much  left,  of  course,  but  still  some ;  if  this  were 
not  so,  the  fattening  hogs  would  have  been  fed 
rather  unwisely  for  the  last  week  or  two. 

Saving  Corn  Fodder. — A  ton  of  well-saved  corn 
fodder  is  worth,  if  well  used,  the  price  of  a  ton  of 
hay.  Yet  how  rarely  is  it  well  saved  or  well  spent ! 
Exposed  after  husking  to  all  the  storms  of  fall  and 
winter,  it  becomes  musty,  mildewed,  washed,  and 
weather  beaten ;  hence  a  very  poor  fodder  indeed. 
When  fed  it  is  thrown  in  the  roughest  and  most 
careless  way  in  the  barnyard,  where  it  is  tramped 
down  in  the  snow  and  mire,  and  the  following  spring 
is  cursed  as  the  greatest  nuisance  with  which  the 
farmer  has  to  contend. 

But  let  stalks  be  shocked  up  carefully,  spread 
well  at  the  butts  of  the  shock  and  tied  closely  at 
the  top  until  the  corn  is  husked,  and  then  put  up  in 
convenient  bundles  and  again  set  up  so  that  the 
rain  cannot  penetrate  the  shocks ;  and  if  as  soon  as 
cured  it  is  carefully  stacked  or  put  away  beneath 
the  tight  roof,  it  becomes  an  agreeable-looking, 
sweet-smelling,  nutritious  fodder,  which  will  be 
readily  eaten  by  all  sorts  of  stock.  If  it  is  cut  up 


136 


FARM    CROPS 


with  any  of  the  various  fodder  cutters,  or  if  at 
husking  time  it  is  passed  through  the  shredding 
machine,  when  fed  it  will  be  largely  consumed,  and 
the  manure  pile  in  the  spring  will  be  altogether  free 
f  from  the  objectionable,  unrotted 
I  and  entangled  stalks,  while  it  will 
[  be  quickly  enriched  by  their  fer- 
T  tilizing  remains.  If  corn  stover 


; — , 

10 


N,   I  S        \   is    properly    cured,    handled    and 
fed   the    supply   of   feed   will   be 
^      t   economized,  often  leaving  hay  to 
\      \  spare  for  sale  or  permitting  the 
*      i  number   of  the   feeding  stock   to 


i 


.-i 


be  doubled,  and  besides,  what  is 
often  a  source  of  trouble  and  an- 
|  noyance  may  be  turned  to  good 
account  and  money  made  by  it. 
COTTON.— While   cotton  has 
been      cultivated     from     ancient 
times,  it  has  been  during  the  past 
one  hundred  years  or  so  that  the 
SHOCKING  CORN   greatest  improvement  has  come  in 

How  the  cutter  can     ,         ,       .         .,    r^*  •    ,  ,  t 

cut  the  corn  and  developing  it.  Thirty  years  ago  the 
theryshock  wffhe  Is  South  grew  but  4,000,000  bales. 
sfbie.steps  as  P°s"  Now  tne  record  is  more  than  13,- 
000,000  bales.  Cotton  has  largely 
supplanted  other  fabrics  and  the  day  will  come 
when  a  25,ooo,ooo-bale  crop  will  be  necessary. 
There  is  available  land  in  the  South  to  make  30,- 
000,000  bales  with  the  present  low  average  yield  an 
acre.  Of  the  12  cotton  states,  only  one  acre  in  17 
is  now  planted  to  the  fleecy  staple  and  only  one  acre 
in  ii  of  the  cotton-producing  counties.  From  these 
figures  can  be  readily  seen  what  a  gigantic  crop 
is  possible  when  the  demand  for  the  fiber  comes. 


COTTON 


137 


Those  familiar  with  the  situation  are  convinced 
that  the  acreage  now  devoted  to  cotton  is  sufficient 
in  every  way  to  supply  every  call  from  the  cotton 
manufacturing  world.  In  favorable  seasons  the 
methods  now  in  vogue  can  be  expected  to  give  as 
large  a  crop  as  the  market  demands.  If  more  acres 
are  given  to  cotton,  the  pro- 
duction will  be  greatly  in- 
creased but  there  will  not  be 
enough  spindles  to  use  it. 

To  seek  any  material  in- 
crease at  present  the  cotton 
acreage  would  call  for  lands 
now  less  well  adapted  to  the 
crop  or  for  those  now  used  for 
other  profitable  enterprises. 
These  areas  should  not  at 
present  be  disturbed.  It  is 
more  important  just  now  to 
get  rotations  started,  pastures 
established,  and  live  stock  fixed 

_  The    two   species    of 

into  the  scheme  of  bouthern  cotton  grown  in  the 
farming.  When  these  things  upland  or  Short  staple 
are  done  it  will  be  time  to  plan  ^ant^VsmTu  annual 
for  more  cotton. 
The  key  to  successful  cotton 

making     IS     not     hard     tO     find,      the    first    day,    become 
•nrri  .    ,,  reddish   on   the  second 

When    COtton    follows    COWpeaS     and  fall   on  the  third, 

or  other  crops  that  add  humus    l^ilSve*in™e\J?y£ 

t/-*     thf»     cm'1       i*f     i*c     T^rr^taKKr     This  bo11  develops  un- 

to    tne    son,    it    is    profitably    til  it  reaches  approxi- 
grown.  When  lands  have  been    ^ap^of^a6  hS?S  egg 

tilled     With     big     plows,     When     when  ^i t^spUta^  into 

good    Cultivation    is    eiven    dur-     crating    the    enormous 
,.  .  •    j      ji          black     seeds      covered 

ing   the    growing    period,    the    with  the  fibrous  wool 
yields    will    run    all    the    way    £>uon 


UPLAND   COTTON 


138 


FARM    CROPS 


from  one  to  two,  or  three  bales  an  acre.  This 
is  the  practical  way  to  increase  the  supply  of  cotton. 
It  is  not  to  scramble  for  more  acres,  but  for  more 
pounds  to  the  acre.  At  the  prices  that  have  pre- 
vailed during  the  past  few  years  cotton  farming  is 
profitable.  At  the  prices  that  prevailed  a  decade 

or  so  back  cotton 
farming,  as  every 
man  who  has 
grown  it  knows, 
was  not  then  a 
profitable  enter- 
prise nor  will  it  be 
now  any  more  so 
than  wheat  at  50  or 
60  cents  a  bushel 
or  milk  at  2  or  3 
cents  a  quart. 

South  Will  Hold 
Cotton  Monopoly.-- 
Some  folks  are  dis- 
turbed about  the 
old  world  lands  that 
may  be  induced  to 
wed  with  cotton. 
Who  knows? 
While  it  is  possible 
for  new  cotton 

growing  sections  to  be  developed,  the  fact  still  re- 
mains that  now,  and  in  all  time  to  come  the  South- 
ern states  will  control  cotton  production  and  hold 
fast  to  the  monopoly.  Cotton  farmers  do  not  need 
to  disturb  themselves  about  what  the  future  will 
bring  forth.  Certainly,  any  attempt  to  flood  the 
market  with  cheap  cotton  in  order  to  keep  other 


COTTON    BOLL 

The  boll  has  just  opened.  The 
white  fiber  is  easily  detached  from 
it.  Picking  cotton  consists  of  pull- 
ing this  white  fiber  from  the  open 
bolls. 


COTTON  139 

sections  from  developing  the  crop  is  not  the  policy 
to  pursue,  nor  will  it  be  considered  for  a  single 
moment  by  anyone  who  sweats  in  the  cotton  field. 
That  argument  might  just  as  well  be  directed  toward 
wheat,  or  corn,  or  live  stock  or  any  other  agricul- 
tural specialty. 

The  first  step  in  cotton  farming  is  to  give  the 
present  acreage  the  best  sort  of  tillage  possible.  Too 
many  farmers  make  cotton  at  a  loss.  While  some 
cotton  growers  may  be  getting  rich  through  cotton, 
on  the  average  farm  the  crop  just  a  little  more  than 
holds  its  own  and  does  just  a  little  better  than  to 
pay  its  own  bills.  The  crop  requires  much  seed, 
large  quantities  of  fertilizer,  a  tremendous  amount 
of  hand  labor  and  horse  cultivation — besides  the 
harvesting  must  be  done  by  hand.  It  is,  therefore, 
an  expensive  crop.  As  the  average  yield  is  under 
200  pounds  an  acre,  there  is  no  immense  wealth  in 
the  business.  What  is  really  needed,  is  not  more 
acres,  but  the  acres  now  used  for  cotton  to  have 
better  care  and  closer  attention.  That's  the  way  to 
make  more  cotton.  That's  the  way  to  keep  the 
supply  up  with  demand.  That's  the  way  to  keep 
the  monopoly  in  this  country  and  to  make  cotton 
growing  a  profitable  industry. 

How  to  Help  Cotton  Lands. — As  matters  now 
run  the  humus  is  being  burnt  out  of  the  soil  right 
along,  the  gullies  still  creep  in  and  wrinkle  the  land 
and  the  soils  yield  no  more,  often  less,  than  for- 
merly was  the  custom.  As  long  as  cotton  is  planted 
on  the  same  land  year  after  year,  as  long  as  the 
soil  is  slovenly  plowed  and  prepared,  as  long  as 
humus  is  denied,  as  long  as  crop  rotation  is  ignored 
and  seed  injudiciously  selected,  the  average  yield 
will  remain  ridiculously  low,  the  needs  of  the  world 


I4O  FARM    CROPS 

will  be  indifferently  met  and  the  cotton  lands  will 
not  be  improved.  There  must  be  redirection  back 
of  cotton  farming. 

This  redirection  must  include  cowpeas  and  clover, 
stable  manure,  crop  rotation,  deep  tillage  and 
modern  tools  and  implements.  If  the  same  total  of 
manures,  tillage  and  cultivation  be  given  25  acres 
that  now  go  to  50  acres  and  the  other  25  acres  be 
turned  over  to  corn  and  cowpeas,  more  profit  will 
be  realized  in  the  end.  Our  real  good  cotton  farmers 
are  the  proof  of  this.  The  average  cotton  farmer 
must  seek  success  by  throwing  aside  the  obsolete 
one-horse  plows  and  use  in  their  place  modern  two- 
horse  plows  that  will  go  down  to  reasonable  depths 
in  the  soil.  And  this  work  should  be  begun  as 
early  as  possible.  Not  in  the  spring  after  the  cotton 
season  has  started;  but  long  before,  in  order  that 
the  land  may  be  opened,  aired,  stirred  up.  After 
this  has  been  done  disk  occasionally  to  release 
plant  food  and  to  get  the  soil  into  the  very  best 
physical  condition.  When  the  planting  season  ap- 
proaches, the  harrow  teeth  should  be  set  deep  into 
the  soil  to  fine  and  mellow  the  earth  and  to  let  the 
fat  of  the  land  ooze  out  that  it  may  be  at  hand 
when  the  young  roots  have  occasion  to  use  it. 
These  steps  call  for  close  application,  but  if  to  them 
are  added  good  seed  and  vital  manures  an  increased 
crop  will  surely  result. 

Other  Crops  Should  Be  Raised. — In  addition  to 
cotton  there  should  also  be  legumes,  corn  and  other 
crops.  Exclusive  cotton  growing  is  fast  giving  way 
to  mixed  farming.  Diversification  is  now  the  order 
and  every  cotton  farmer  must  get  in  line.  Corn  and 
cowpeas  should  be  given  places  of  equal  importance 
with  cotton.  Not  small,  inconspicuous  corners,  but 


THE   QUEEN   OF  AMERICAN    CROPS 

At  the  top  is  shown  a  second  cutting  of  alfalfa.  At  the 
bottom  the  fourth  crop  of  the  season,  with  pigs  helping  to 
harvest  it. 


IN   THE    LAND   OF   COTTON 

Familiar  scenes  in  the  South.  After  being  picked  the  seed 
cotton  is  ginned,  the  seed  sold  or  returned  to  the  farm  and 
the  lint  pressed  into  bales  and  sold  to  the  mills  of  this  coun- 
try and  Europe. 


COTTON  141 

big,  broad  fields  where  both  crops  can  spread  out,  ex- 
pand and  prove  their  worth.  Both  crops  are  needed 
— the  cowpeas  to  rid  the  land  of  grass  and  gullies ; 
and  the  corn  and  cowpea  hay  for  grain  and  forage. 

To  make  more  money  out  of  cotton  more  acres 
should  be  given  over  to  food  crops.  Food  stuffs  for 
the  family  and  for  the  stock  should  all  be  grown  on 
the  farm.  With  much  pasture  and  a  good  corn  crop 
you  can  grow  your  own  meat,  feed  your  own  stock 
with  home-grown  supplies  and  be  largely  independ- 
ent of  imported  offerings.  The  garden  should  be 
enlarged  and  included  in  it  many  winter  crops. 
So  also  the  dairy  herd,  in  many  cases,  should  be 
increased.  With  butter,  milk,  meat,  poultry,  eggs, 
fruit,  vegetables  and  a  dozen  other  products  raised 
on  the  farm,  both  for  home  use  and  for  sale,  South- 
ern farming  will  grow  more  profitable  and  the 
cotton  crop  as  clear  money  will  give  the  South  a 
financial  prestige  that  no  other  section  can  rival. 

You  see  the  South  has  been  buying  too  many 
things  raised  elsewhere.  If  the  corn,  hay  and  meat 
bills  only  were  saved  to  cotton  farms,  in  a  decade 
the  change  would  be  observable  in  a  dozen  ways. 
Instead  of  these  farms  being  importing  farms,  they 
also  should  send  to  towns  and  cities  human  food 
on  the  same  loads  that  carry  the  raw  product  for 
clothing.  Consequently  there  ought  to  be  much 
pork  and  beef  each  year  for  sale;  and  the  manure 
made  from  this  farm  stock  will  make  the  cotton  crop 
still  more  profitable.  The  cottonseed  meal,  instead 
of  being  shipped  to  Europe  and  the  North  through 
this  redirection  of  Southern  farms,  would  be  more 
and  more  consumed  in  Southern  farming,  thereby 
building  up  Southern  lands  to  make  Southern  stock 
feeding  still  more  profitable.  And  the  money  made 


142 


FARM    CROPS 


by  cotton  in  this  way  would  be  kept  in  the  South, 
instead  of  being  sent  west  for  meat  and  feed. 

Best  Kind  of  Cultivation. — Make  a  stand  for 
good  seed.  And  what  is  also  quite  to  the  point, 
select  your  own  seed.  Give  the  crop  better  care. 
Begin  the  cultivation  early. 
Start  with  the  weeder  or 
fine-tooth  harrow.  I  have  seen 
much  cotton  and  I  have  grown 
some  myself  where  a  hand  hoe 
was  never  used.  Some  will 
hesitate  at  the  start  to  elim- 
inate the  hand  hoe.  The 
doubting  ones  can  continue  to 
use  the  hoe,  but  let  it  be  after 
the  fine-tooth  harrow  has  gone 
along  the  rows  tearing  grass 
and  weeds  and  thinning  out 
some  of  the  stalks ;  for  the 
finishing  touches  the  hoe  can 
then  be  used.  The  harrow  in 
the  early  stages  will  also  put 
the  soil  in  excellent  condition. 
It  will  warm  the  land,  much  to 
the  pleasure  of  the  cotton 
plant;  and  the  millions  and 
millions  of  grass  seeds  that  lie  at  the  top,  sprout- 
ing or  just  ready  to  sprout,  will  be  destroyed. 

Then,  too,  better  care  must  be  taken  of  the  bales. 
While  the  moisture  they  may  take  up  when  exposed 
to  all  kinds  of  weather  tends  to  increase  the  weight, 
it  is  fictitious  and  does  not  represent  value ;  it  is 
also  a  dishonorable  way  to  get  something  for  noth- 
ing; and  to  say  that  others  do  it  is  not  to  meet  the 
question  face  to  face.  On  the  one  hand,  while  a 


COTTON  BOLL 

The  house  of  seed 
and  lint.  In  it  are 
from  three  to  five 
or  more  cells  in 
which  are  lodged  the 
commercial  products. 
The  size,  shape  and 
general  appearance  of 
cotton  bolls  are  char- 
acteristic of  each  par- 
ticular variety. 


COTTON  143 

cotton  bale  so  exposed  may  weigh  a  bit  more,  on 
the  other  its  quality  is  lessened.  It  is,  therefore, 
doubtful  if  the  advantage  of  water  weight  is  not 
overcome  by  the  loss  in  quality,  and  subsequent 
lower  price.  This  cotton  secret  has  been  so  gen- 
erally exposed  that  consumers  are  now  on  the  look- 
out for  it.  Even  though  the  buyer  in  your  immedi- 
ate locality  is  not  discriminating,  ultimate  buyers 
and  the  consumers  are,  and  they  pay  less  for  the 
bales  that  have  not  been  protected  from  the  ele- 
ments. Somebody  along  the  lines,  therefore, 
profits  by  discrimination,  but  in  the  long  run  it  is 
not  the  cotton  producer. 

The  market  problem  is  also  very  troublesome.  If 
cotton  were  marketed  gradually  as  are  other  crops, 
there  would  be  less  variation  in  the  prices  that  rule 
from  September  to  July.  The  many  growers  who 
are  forced  to  market  early  force  the  price  down- 
ward to  the  joy  of  the  speculators,  and  millions  are 
lost  to  cotton  growers,  much  of  which  is  pocketed 
by  cotton  middlemen.  It  follows  that  it  is  a  wise 
plan  to  keep  out  of  the  hands  of  storekeepers  and 
money  lenders.  All  cotton  growers  should  preach 
the  gospel  of  independence  and  urge  their  brother 
growers  to  raise  the  home  supplies  in  order  to  keep 
out  of  debt.  To  be  in  debt  for  fertilizers  and  provi- 
sions is  to  jeopardize  the  value  of  cotton.  When 
forced  to  sell  cotton  in  the  early  market  with  the 
price  low  and  the  demand  small,  the  weakest  grower 
gets  the  long  end  of  the  pull  and  he  finds  it  difficult 
to  keep  going.  If  one  is  not  in  debt  to  the  store  or  to 
a  money  lender  or  cotton  factor,  he  will  be  able  to 
market  his  crops  slowly  and  as  the  price  justifies. 

COWPEAS. — Too  much  cannot  be  said  in  praise 
of  the  cowpea.  What  clover  is  to  the  North,  the 


144  FARM    CROPS 

pea  is  to  the  South.  On  the  poorest,  sandy  land, 
with  200  or  300  pounds  of  fertilizer,  a  crop  of  cow- 
peas  can  be  made  that  will  simply  astonish  a  novice. 
Not  only  an  abundance  of  choicest  grain  can  be 
made  from  them,  but  the  hay  one  acre  will  yield 
will  three  times  pay  the  cost  of  the  crop.  The  hay, 
if  properly  cured,  is  not  just  common  rough  feed, 
but  in  nutrition  is  unsurpassed.  Horses,  mules,  cattle, 
sheep  and  goats  will  keep  fat  on  the  hay  alone. 

The  valuable  effects  of  a  pea  crop  can  be  seen 
in  the  land  for  several  years.  Land  that  is  hard 
and  inclined  to  run  together,  if  treated  with  a  crop 
of  peas,  will  for  several  years  after  be  open,  easy 
to  pulverize,  and  much  more  productive.  Many 
farmers  who  have  tried  cowpeas  and  condemned 
them  made  the  mistake  of  planting  them  too  early ; 
peas  should  be  planted  when  the  weather  becomes 
warm.  The  land  should  be  prepared  and  fertilized 
as  for  corn.  Three  of  the  best  standard  varieties 
are  the  Clay,  a  variety  that  will  not  rot,  if  left 
after  ripening,  and  a  heavy  yielder;  the  Carson, 
a  tough  shuck  pea  that  will  not  shell  out  readily 
when  vines  are  cut,  a  heavy  yielder  and  very  hardy, 
the  best  for  hay  of  any  variety ;  and  the  old  reliable 
Whippoorwill,  which  is  a  good  variety  where  grain 
is  most  desired ;  and  will  bear  for  several  successive 
weeks  if  the  ripe  ones  are  picked  off.  Other  va- 
rieties and  all  good  ones  are  the  Iron,  Blackeye, 
Wonderful  and  Taylor. 

Because  the  cowpea  is  a  native  of  the  South  some 
Northern  farmers  think  they  cannot  grow  it.  This 
is  a  mistake.  Indian  corn  is  also  a  native  of  the 
South,  but  even  the  Indians  by  persistent  selection 
acclimated  it  in  Canada.  The  cowpea  is  a  good 
soil  enricher,  and  it  will  grow  under  more  adverse 


COWPEAS 


145 


conditions  than  will  clover.     It  is  the  best  plant  to 
start  poor,  sterile,  abandoned  fields  on  a  course  of 
usefulness.     When  all  other  plants,  even  rye,  make 
a  sickly  showing,  cowpeas,  under  good  cultivation 
and  a  light  application  of  superphosphate,  make  a 
fine  growth.     When  plowed  in,  the  soil  is  improved 
mechanically,  and  much  nitrogen  added.     The  cow- 
pea  will  grow  on  poor,  rough  soil  if  a  decent  seed 
bed  is  made,  and  a  little  food  used  to  start  them. 
Do  not  be  discouraged  if  the  first  sowing  does 
not  make  much  showing.    Plow  it  all  in  as  soon  as 
frosted,  and  sow 
the  land  to  rye, 
using    I     bushel 
an     acre     for     a 
winter     cover 
crop,  to  hold  the 
soil.      In  May, 
when  the  rye  is 
about    to     head, 
plow  it  down  and 
make        another 
seed  bed  for  the 
cowpeas.        The 
soil  becomes  in- 
oculated    with 
bacteria  the  first 
crop  and  now  the 
cowpea 


COWPEA   RACK 


While  a  great  deal  of  cowpea  hay  is 

.n     i  cured  on  racks,   the  greater  part  of  the 

Will      DC  crop,  especially  in  the  South,  is  cured  in 

,         4.    i  a  windrow,  or  in  small  shocks  weighing 

enabled    to     take  fr0m  100  to  300  pounds.     A  rack  such  as 

r            nitrncrpn  is  here  pictured  is  very  excellent,  but  it 

uiuugeii  adds  much  to  the  cost  of  curing  the  hay. 

from      the      air. 

Naturally  the  soil  will  be  more  congenial  and  the 
growth  surprising.  As  a  nitrogen  gatherer,  a  humus 
maker,  and  a  consumer  of  rough  plant  food,  the 


146 


FARM    CROPS 


cowpea    is    not    excelled    if    ever    equaled    by    any 
other  plant. 

As  a  Food  Plant  it  is  rich,  succulent,  palatable, 
with  a  high  per  cent  of  protein.  It  remains  in  a 
good  condition  longer  than  most  other  soiling  crops. 
As  a  silage  crop  it  is  also  good  if  mixed  with  corn 
or  sorghum,  but  by  itself  it  will  not  cure  very  well 
in  the  silo.  As  a  hay  crop  it  is  excellent,  but 

hard  to  cure  in 
good  shape.  Its 
heavy  vines  and 
thick,  fleshy 
leaves  dry 
slowly.  If  sun- 
dried  and  han- 
dled much,  the 
leaves  will  be 
lost.  The  best 
method  to  cure 
cowpeas  is  to 
allow  the  vines 
to  wilt  com- 
pletely, and 
then  put  up  in 
narrow  high 
cocks,  allow- 
ing them  to 
remain  thus  for 
about  a  week.  It  is  usually  cured  through  and  can 
safely  be  stored.  Do  not  make  the  cocks  too  high 
or  the  hay  will  mold.  The  cowpea  is  a  tender  bean, 
and  will  be  killed  by  a  frost  the  same  as  a  garden 
bean,  but  heat,  drouth,  insects,  fungi,  etc.,  it  fears 
not;  it  will  overcome  even  weeds  and  continue  to 
make  its  growth  until  nipped  by  frost. 


COWPEA  SHOCK 

A  shock  of  green  cowpea  built  on  the 
peavine  rack.  When  shocked  in  this 
manner,  the  hay  is  left  in  the  field  until 
thoroughly  cured,  when  it  is  either 
stored  in  the  barn  or  placed  in  large 
stacks  or  racks. 


COWPEAS  147 

The  cowpea  will  respond  to  good  tillage.  A  well- 
fined,  loose  seed  bed  is  the  ideal  one.  Never  plant 
until  the  ground  is  warm.  Sow  broadcast  or  with 
grain  drill  at  the  rate  of  one  to  two  bushels  to  the 
acre.  If  sown  broadcast  the  seed  bed  should  be  well 
prepared.  When  the  seed  is  sown  the  land  is  well 
harrowed  with  a  disk  or  cutaway.  If  planted  in 
drills  make  rows  about  28  inches  apart,  and  cul- 
tivate a  few  times.  This  not  only  hastens  the 
growth,  but  increases  the  yields  considerably.  The 
saving  of  seed  is  also  an  item  in  planting  in  drills, 
as  only  half  as  much  seed  is  needed  by  this  method. 

Cowpea  Hay. — In  feeding  value  well-cured 
cowpea  hay  is  similar  and  about  equal  to  alfalfa 
and  red  clover  hay.  Curing  of  cowpea  hay  requires 
especial  care  to  avoid  the  dropping  of  the  leaves, 
which  occurs  if  the  vines  are  overripe  when  cut, 
or  if  in  curing  they  are  too  long  exposed  to  sun- 
shine. Cut  just  after  the  dew  is  off,  turn  the  vines 
several  hours  before  sunset  and  put  in  windrows 
or  cocks  toward  the  middle  of  the  next  day.  Hay 
caps  are  very  useful  in  curing  pea  vines.  German 
millet  has  been  satisfactorily  used  for  the  same 
purpose  with  the  early  varieties  of  cowpeas,  sowing  I 
bushel  of  the  latter  and  I  peck  of  the  millet  per  acre. 

DURUM  WHEAT.— -The  group  of  wheat  that 
furnishes  the  great  bulk  of  macaroni  paste.  Until 
recently  these  wheats  were  grown  quite  entirely 
outside  of  the  United  States.  The  experiments 
made  in  this  country  have  been  favorable  to  their 
production  and  large  areas  are  now  annually  given 
over  to  the  durum  varieties.  These  wheats  are 
desired  in  this  country  because  of  the  hard  grain. 
No  wheat  has  such  a  hard,  flinty  character  as  the 
durum.  The  plants  are  somewhat  different  from 


148 


FARM    CROPS 


ordinary  wheat.  They  are  rather  ta*ll ;  the  leaves 
are  smooth;  the  heads  slender,  sometimes  short, 
but  compact  and  always  bearded  with  very  long 
beards.  The  grains  are  a  whitish  yellow,  rather 
long  and  very  hard. 

This  wheat  likes  a  soil  rich  in  vegetable  matter 
and  therefore  rather  fertile.     Its  choice  is  for  a  hot, 

dry  climate,  and  soils  of 
an  alkaline  nature  are 
much  liked.  Durum  is 
raised  very  largely  in  the 
great  plains  district. 
There  soil  and  climate  are 
favorable  and  the  wheat 
resists  the  drouth  more 
successfully  than  most 
other  crops.  Now  that 
durum  wheat  growing  has 
become  fully  established 
its  acreage  will  increase 
to  meet  the  demand  for 
the  macaroni  and  other 
forms  of  edible  pastes. 

EMMER.— •  A  very  old 
wheat  cultivated  from  the 
most  ancient  times.  Its 
growing  so  far  has  been 
limited  to  Northwestern 
states.  It  is  prized  there 
for  its  drouth-resisting 
qualities.  It  thrives  best 


DURUM  WHEAT 

The     head     is     heavily     in  the  dry  prairie  region 

bearded,  much  more  so  than  1-1        ,11 

the  ordinary  wheats.   In  ap-       and   Seems  to   like  the   hot 
pearance    it     is     much     like 
barley.     They  vary  in  color 


from  light  yellow  to  almost 
black. 


summers.     Its 
been    limited 


use     has 
so    far    to 


FIELD   BEANS  149 

stock  food.  Its  feeding  value  is  very  similar  to 
wheat.  The  yield  runs  well,  anywhere  from  25  to 
60  bushels  to  the  acre  in  the  arid  Western  wheat 
district.  Both  winter  and  spring  varieties  are 
grown,  the  spring  varieties  being  the  most  popular. 
It  is  doubtful  if  emmer  will  enter  very  largely  into 
the  stock  food  crops  of  the  country.  It  can  be  used 
in  sections  where  the  soil  and  climate  suit,  but  the 
area  is  likely  to  be  limited. 

FIELD  BEANS.— Beans  do  their  best  on  an  in- 
verted clover  sod.  The  larger  and  later  varieties 
seem  to  be  more  grown  where  the  agriculture  is 
more  diversified,  where  more  potatoes  and  corn  are 
grown,  and  a  four  or  five-year  rotation  is  followed. 
In  these  localities  the  beans  are  usually  planted  on 
inverted  sod  land;  but  sometimes  follow  corn  or 
potatoes.  Since  they  come  off  the  land  too  late  to 
allow  of  proper  fitting  of  the  latter  for  wheat,  they 
are  usually  followed  by  oats  or  other  spring  sown 
crops.  Early  plowing  is  essential  to  best  results 
with  beans.  The  time  of  planting  varies  somewhat 
with  locality.  Early  planting  of  beans  is  not  to  be 
recommended.  The  seeds  rot  quickly  if  placed  in 
soil  too  cold  or  too  wet  for  quick  germination,  and 
even  if  a  fair  stand  is  secured  the  young  plants  do 
not  get  an  even  start.  At  harvest  time,  this  un- 
equal start  results  in  uneven  ripening — one  of  the 
troubles  of  the  bean  grower.  If  planting  be  de- 
layed until  the  soil  is  thoroughly  warm,  uneven 
ripening  is  not  so  likely  to  occur. 

Nearly  all  growers  plant  beans  in  drills.  The 
distance  between  drills  varies  from  24  to  32  inches, 
and  is  usually  28  inches.  The  ordinary  grain  drill 
is  used  almost  exclusively  for  planting  the  small 
varieties,  stopping  the  tubes  that  are  not  needed. 


FARM    CROPS 


Special  bean  planters  are  more  used  in  localities 
where  the  large  beans  are  grown.  The  amount  of 
seed  required  to  the  acre  varies  with  the  variety. 
Of  the  small  beans,  many  growers  plant  one-half 
bushel  an  acre,  though  some  claim  better  results 
with  three  pecks,  or  even  one  bushel.  Five  or 
even  six  pecks  to  an  acre  of  kidney  beans  are  recom- 
mended, and  intermediate  amounts  of  the  other 
varieties  according  to  size. 

If  soil  conditions  are  right,  beans  come  up 
quickly  and  the  cultivation  may  begin  early.  When 
they  first  appear  above  ground  the  young  plants  are 
tender  and  break  easily,  so  that  care  is  required  in 
working  among  them.  The  weeder  cannot  well  be 
used  on  the  field  at  this  time,  though  some  farmers 
use  it  after  the  plants  are  forward  enough  to  have 
become  somewhat  toughened.  Cultivators  of  vari- 
ous design  are  used  in  the  bean  fields.  The  wheel 
tools  cultivating  two  or  more  rows  at  a  time  are 
coming  much  into  use.  The  culture  required  by 
the  bean  is  similar  to  that  of  other  intertilled  crops. 
The  cultivation  should  be  frequent  enough  to  keep 
the  weeds  from  starting  and  the  crust  from  forming 
on  the  surface  of  the  soil.  Cultivation  should  not 
be  given  while  the  leaves  are  wet  with  dew  or  rain, 
as  the  soiling  of  the  leaves  seems  to  favor  the 
development  of  disease. 

FIELD  PEAS. — These  grow  upright  for  a  time 
and  then,  unless  sustained  by  other  grain  sown 
along  with  them,  they  fall  over  and  complete  their 
growth  in  a  recumbent  position.  This  trailing 
habit  unfits  field  peas  for  a  pasture  crop,  excepting 
for  swine.  Their  chief  value  is  for  forage.  They 
may  be  used  either  for  hay  or  soiling.  They  are 
most  frequently  grown  along  with  oats.  The  best 


FIELD  PEAS  151 

soil  for  peas  is  a  porous  moist  clay  loam.  They  will 
not  do  well  in  wet  lands.  Sandy  loams  are  good, 
provided  there  is  an  abundance  of  moisture.  Good 
preparation  should  be  given  the  soil  previous  to 
seeding.  Fall-plowed  land  is  the  best.  They  are 
most  frequently  planted  in  combination  with  oats. 
In  a  general  way  two  bushels  of  oats  and  one  bushel 
of  field  peas  are  used  to  the  acre.  These  may  be 
mixed  before  seeding  and  sown  broadcast  or  with 
a  drill.  The  best  results  are  obtained  by  sowing 
the  two  crops  separately.  The  peas  are  scattered 
over  the  land  and  disked  in  to  a  depth  of  3  or  4 
inches.  Following  this  at  once,  or  shortly  after, 
should  come  the  oats  either  in  the  grain  drill  or  by 
hand  and  broadcasted. 

The  peas  will  stand  a  greater  depth  than  the  oats 
and  do  better  if  covered  3  or  4  inches  deep.  The 
two  crops  in  combination  work  excellently.  The  oats 
give  the  peas  support  that  they  need  and  the  peas 
add  nitrogen  to  the  soil  and  through  the  bacteria 
supply  much  that  they  need  for  their  own  growth. 
When  oats  and  peas  are  grown  as  a  dual  crop  the 
harvesting  is  about  the  time  the  oats  are  in  the  milk. 
As  a  hay  it  is  both  appetizing  and  nutritious  and  as 
a  food  for  dairy  cows  is  unsurpassed.  In  many 
dairy  sections  the  custom  prevails  of  seeding  each 
spring  a  small  acreage  to  oats  and  peas  to  get  an 
early  soiling  crop.  When  the  crop  reaches  a 
height  of  a  couple  of  feet  daily  cuttings  are  made 
and  these  are  given  to  the  cows  as  green  forage.  If 
the  clover  or  alfalfa  crops  are  available  or  the  pas- 
ture is  ready  before  all  of  the  oats  and  peas  are 
used  up  it  is  customary  to  cut  the  remaining  part 
and  use  as  hay. 

FLAX. — In  this  country  flax  is  grown  primarily 


152  FARM    CROPS 

for  seed.  The  demand  for  linseed  oil  makes  the 
growing  of  flax  profitable  in  some  sections  of  the 
country.  Then,  too,  the  by-product,  or  linseed 
meal,  is  extremely  valuable  as  a  stock  food.  For 
this  crop  a  moist,  deep  loam  having  good  drainage 
is  best.  This  applies  for  both  seed  and  fiber  va- 
rieties. Inasmuch  as  flax  is  a  heavy  nitrogen  feeder 
the  soil  must  contain  an  abundant  supply  of  this 
fertilizing  element.  This  is  most  cheaply  obtained 
when  clover  and  other  legumes  are  grown.  In 
seeding  as  soon  as  the  weather  settles  and  the 
ground  is  warmed  up,  the  seed  is  sown  2  or  3  pecks 
to  the  acre.  A  heavier  seeding  than  this  crowds 
plants  and  lessens  the  seed  yield.  Heavier  seedings 
are  preferred  for  fiber  and  in  this  case  from  a  bushel 
to  two  bushels  of  seed  are  used  to  the  acre.  The 
heavy  seeding  prevents  the  branching  of  the  stalks 
and  induces  a  single  stem  instead. 

For  fiber  the  seed  is  spread  broadcast  and  for 
seed  both  broadcast  and  in  drills.  When  the  seeds 
are  full  and  plump  and  have  good  color,  it  is  time 
to  harvest.  The  binder  is  used  for  the  purpose. 
When  the  bundles  are  cured  they  are  put  in  small 
stacks  or  stored  in  the  barn  until  threshing  time. 
A  common  grain  threshing  machine  will  serve  the 
purpose  well.  The  yield  of  flax  seed  runs  from  8 
to  15  bushels  to  the  acre. 

GERMAN  MILLET.— See  Millets. 

HAIRY  VETCH.— See  Vetches. 

HEMP. — An  erect  annual  grown  for  its  fiber- 
bearing  qualities.  This  fiber  is  taken  from  the 
inner  bark  and  is  closely  bound  together  by  resin- 
ous gum.  The  rich,  well-drained  bottom  lands  are 
best  for  hemp,  but  uplands,  if  fertile  and  moist, 
may  be  used.  Much  moisture  is  an  essential  factor 


HEMP  153 

in  growing  the  crop.  The  usual  seeding  time  is  in 
the  spring  about  the  time  oats  and  spring  rye  are 
sown.  For  fiber  about  a  bushel  of  seed  is  used  to 
the  acre;  the  seed  is  scattered  broadcast  and  har- 
rowed in.  No  cultivating  or  weeding  is  required 
during  the  growing  period. 

Hemp  is  a  ravenous  feeder  of  nitrogen,  calling 
for  heavy  applications  of  barnyard  manure  or 
legumes  like  cowpeas,  soy  beans  or  vetch  to  pre- 
cede it.  Heavy  applications  of  fertilizer  are  also 
advisable,  cottonseed  meal  being  especially  good. 
About  200  pounds  can  be  used  to  the  acre.  In 
addition  to  the  meal,  200  pounds  of  acid  phosphate 
and  200  pounds  of  sulphate  of  ammonia  are  recom- 
mended for  poor  soils.  Harvesting  takes  place 
when  the  fiber  is  in  full  blossom.  It  is  cut  with  a 
heavy  reaper,  the  stalks  close  to  the  ground.  The 
bundles  are  left  on  the  ground  until  they  are  rotted 
by  the  dew  and  rain,  then  shocked  like  corn  and 
tied  in  bundles  or  stacked.  The  yield  of  fiber 
varies  from  750  to  1,500  pounds  to  the  acre. 
The  higher  the  plant  the  heavier  the  yield.  It  is 
estimated  that  an  increase  of  12  inches  in  height 
means  an  increase  of  150  pounds  of  fiber  to  the 
acre.  The  fiber  sells  for  from  6  to  8  cents  a  pound. 

Some  hemp  is  sown  for  seed,  which  is  used  as 
bird  and  poultry  food,  and  for  making  oils  to  mix 
with  paints  and  for  soap  making.  If  seed  is 
wanted,  the  seeding  should  be  made  in  rows  or  in 
hills  with  cultivation  similar  to  corn.  Use  about 
2  quarts  of  seed  to  the  acre.  The  harvesting  is 
similar  to  corn.  The  stalks  are  made  into  shocks 
and  tied.  When  thoroughly  dry  the  threshing 
takes  place,  usually  with  a  flail.  The  yield  varies 
from  30  to  35  bushels  to  the  acre. 


154 


HOPS  155 

HOPS. — This  perennial  climbing  vine  is  grown 
principally  for  its  use  in  beer  making.  The  foliage 
is  harsh,  the  stems  rough  and  the  height  from  10 
to  25  feet.  While  hops  can  be  grown  nearly  every- 
where, they  are  cultivated  in  only  a  few  places. 
California  and  New  York  are  the  leading  hop 
states.  A  sandy  loam  relatively  fertile  is  prefer- 
able, and  it  should  be  moist,  although  not  wet. 
Some  manure  should  be  given  to  each  hill  and 
worked  well  into  the  soil  where  the  plant  is  to  grow. 
These  heavy  applications  of  well-rotted  manure  al- 
ways pay.  Liberal  use  of  manure  between  rows  is 
desirable. 

The  hop  grows  vigorously  and  makes  its  growth 
in  about  three  months;  therefore  requires  plenty 
of  food  if  it  is  to  yield  its  best.  Roots  are  used  in 
propagating.  The  root  cuttings  should  be  selected 
with  two  or  more  bud  eyes  and  these  laid  in  rows 
7  feet  apart  each  way.  Two  or  three  root  cuttings 
can  be  given  to  a  hill.  It  is  best  to  place  these  6 
or  8  inches  apart  and  to  cover  2  or  3  inches  deep 
with  mellow  soil. 

When  the  hop  vines  have  reached  a  length  of 
about  2  feet  they  require  training.  One  or  two 
poles  from  15  to  20  feet  long  are  set  firmly  in  the 
ground  at  each  hill  and  on  these  the  vines  are 
trained.  During  the  latter  part  of  August  or  the 
first  of  September  hops  are  said  to  be  ripe  and  are 
then  picked.  The  hop  vines  are  cut  down  and  the 
hops  picked  by  hand  into  boxes,  baskets  or  in  piles. 
A  good  picker  will  gather  from  150  to  200  pounds 
of  green  hops  a  day.  After  picking  over  they  are 
cured  usually  by  artificial  heat  and  in  the  commer- 
cial sections  in  kilns.  This  work  being  a  tech- 
nical problem,  experience  and  judgment  are  neces- 


156  FARM    CROPS 

sary.  These  are  learned  only  through  practice. 
Following  the  drying  comes  the  cooling  and  baling. 
They  are  put  through  a  sweating  process  and  then 
pressed  into  bales  weighing  about  200  pounds  and 
sewed  up  in  baling  cloth. 

HUNGARIAN  MILLET.— See  Millets. 

INDIAN  CORN.— See  Corn. 

ITALIAN  RYE  GRASS.— A  quick  growing 
grass  and  often  used  in  permanent  pastures.  It 
fancies  a  moist,  loamy  soil  rather  rich  in  lime. 
When  so  provided,  it  makes  an  excellent  hay.  If 
reasonably  well  fertilized,  in  two  months  after  seed- 
ing a  good  cutting  of  hay  may  be  secured.  For 
this  reason  it  is  prized  as  a  soiling  crop.  It  can- 
not withstand  drouth  and  it  does  poorly  on  stiff, 
clay  lands. 

For  hay,  the  cutting  should  be  when  in  bloom. 
From  2  to  3  tons  are  usually  secured  to  the 
acre.  In  seeding  about  2  bushels  of  seed  are  re- 
quired to  the  acre.  If  seeded  in  mixtures,  half  of 
this  quantity  should  be  used.  Both  fall  and  spring 
sowings  are  practiced.  It  usually  runs  its  course 
in  two  or  three  years,  and,  therefore,  is  not  valuable 
for  permanent  meadows.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  have 
other  plants  like  red  top  and  timothy  in  the  seed 
mixture  to  succeed  as  it  dies  out. 

JAPAN  CLOVER.— A  Southern  pasture  grass 
and  unsurpassed  in  some  of  the  more  southern 
localities  as  a  hay  crop.  It  grows  on  the  poorest, 
barest  red  clay  knobs  and  on  the  exhausted  gravelly 
or  worn-out  sands  and  at  the  same  time  produces  fair 
grazing.  It  is  a  legume  and  a  good  soil  renovator. 
Its  roots  are  richly  supplied  with  nitrogen-gather- 
ing tubercles.  In  the  heat  and  drouth  of  midsum- 
mer when  plants  like  common  red  and  white  clover, 


JAPAN    CLOVER  157 

timothy  and  Bermuda  grass  ate  dried  up  or  at  a 
standstill  in  the  pastures,  Japan  clover  grows  vigor- 
ously and  luxuriantly  holds  its  green  and  palatable 
qualities  for  stock  until  the  heavy  frosts  come  on  in 
the  fall. 

Besides  this,  once  started  it  spreads  rapidly  and 
crowds  out  the  common  and  worthless  plants  of 
the  neighborhood.  Because  of  its  thick  manner 
of  forage  it  withstands  tramping  and  the  closest 
grazing  of  stock.  It  is  successful  as  far  north  as 
Maryland  and  as  far  west  as  Kansas  and  Texas. 
Its  greatest  usefulness  is  from  Virginia  southwest 
to  the  gulf.  Japan  Clover  is  an  annual  and  dies 
down  each  year,  leaving  its  stems,  leaves  and  roots 
to  decay  and  enrich  the  soil.  From  the  soil  which 
falls  to  the  ground  or  which  is  scattered  by  the 
wind  or  in  the  manure  of  grazing  animals  the  crop 
of  the  following  year  is  produced.  It  is  not  a  weed 
and  can  be  eradicated  by  plowing  as  easily  as  red 
clover.  It  is  a  low  spreading  plant,  standing  from 
8  to  12  inches  in  height.  On  poor,  dry  soils  it 
spreads  out  flat  and  may  not  exceed  3  or  4  inches 
in  height.  Farther  to  the  south,  where  it  makes 
good  hay,  it  frequently  attains  a  height  of  2  feet 
and  as  much  as  2  tons  of  hay  are  made  to  the  acre. 
It  is,  however,  a  crop  primarily  for  pasture  and  for 
soil  renovation.  To  secure  the  best  quality  of 
forage  it  should  be  kept  pastured  rather  closely, 
as  the  more  mature  plants  get  woody  near  the  base. 
It  is  practically  impossible  to  graze  so  closely  as 
to  prevent  reseeding.  This  clover  is  seldom  seeded 
in  pastures,  but  is  allowed  to  come  in  naturally. 
It  is  so  valuable,  however,  that  this  is  too  slow  a 
method  to  obtain  its  rejuvenating  effects  for  the 
land. 


158  FARM    CROPS 

It  would  pay  to  sow  the  seed  as  any  other  crop. 
In  seeding  a  light  harrowing  will  not  be  amiss,  but 
the  ordinary  rains  will  sufficiently  cover  the  seed. 
When  warm  weather  approaches  it  grows  rapidly 
until  frost  comes.  Its  greatest  value  is  as  a  restorer 
of  worn-out  fields,  and  to  do  such  work  it  stands 
unequaled  among  the  renovating  crops  of  the 
South. 

JAPANESE  MILLET.— See  Millet. 

KAFIR  CORN.— As  a  substitute  for  corn  in  the 
semi-arid  regions  of  the  West  kafir  corn  is  a  great 
success.  It  grows  from  4  to  8  feet  in  height.  The 
stalks  are  thick,  rather  short  jointed,  with  broad 
leaves  much  like  corn  leaves.  The  grain  is  centered 
in  the  head,  which  is  compact,  ranging  from  10  to  16 
inches  in  length.  There  is  not  much  nutrition  in 
the  stalks.  The  leaves,  however,  are  good  and 
very  good  yields  are  obtained  from  each  acre  of  the 
grain.  The  yield  ranges  from  35  to  50  bushels  to 
the  acre.  In  good  years,  with  a  reasonable  amount 
of  moisture  and  on  rather  good  soils  75  to  100 
bushels  of  grain  may  be  secured. 

Grown  side  by  side  in  these  dry  sections  kafir 
corn  as  a  rule  outyields  Indian  corn.  Varieties  in 
general  cultivation  are  the  red,  white  and  black 
hulled.  The  red  and  black  hulled  are  the 
best  yielders  and  both  are  hardy.  The  grain  is 
used  as  a  substitute  for  Indian  corn.  It  is  used 
very  successfully  for  feeding  horses  and  for  fatten- 
ing hogs  and  cattle  or  other  farm  stock.  For  fat- 
tening purposes  it  is  not  far  behind  Indian  corn. 
Since  the  yield  in  these  dry  lands  is  greater  with 
the  kafir  corn  a  little  more  pork  is  usually  secured 
to  the  acre  from  growing  it  than  from  the  Indian 
corn.  Kafir  stover  looks  very  much  like  or- 


KAFIR   CORN  159 

dinary  stover,  but  is  not  so  palatable.  When 
grown  for  hay  kafir  corn  is  seeded  broadcast  and 
if  the  crop  is  cut  when  the  grain 'is  in  a  dough  stage 
a  great  deal  of  forage  will  be  obtained.  When  the 
kafir  corn  crop  is  cut,  if  this  be  done  early  in  the 
season,  a  second  crop  frequently  grows  up  and  not 
infrequently  this  second  crop  can  be  used  for  pas- 
ture. Considerable  damage  to  live  stock  has  re- 
sulted from  pasturing  the  second  crop.  Bloat  is 
not  uncommon  and  often  the  animals  die  with  all 
the  symptoms  of  acute  poisoning.  The  real  rea- 
son for  this  is  not  known. 

The  crop  is  adapted  to  all  soils,  but  it  fancies 
most  the  rich  corn  lands.  It  will  do  better  in  poor 
soils,  however,  than  ordinary  corn.  If  a  sudden 
drouth  comes  on  when  other  corn  is  completely 
killed  kafir  corn  will  curl  up  its  leaves  and  cease 
to  grow,  but  still  hold  life.  With  the  first  rain  it 
begins  to  grow  again  just  as  if  its  life  had  not  been 
threatened  at  all.  If  the  stalks  are  cut  and  subse- 
quent rains  come,  a  second  and  often  a  third  crop 
are  possible. 

In  preparing  for  kafir  corn,  go  about  it  just  as 
you  would  for  corn.  A  good  seed  bed  is  very 
desirable.  When  seeded  in  rows,  about  7  pounds 
to  the  acre  are  sufficient.  The  rows  should  be  3  feet 
apart  and  the  grains  distributed  from  4  to  6  inches 
in  the  row.  If  seeded  broadcast  for  hay,  use  from 
i  to  2  bushels  to  the  acre.  The  grain  drill  is  used 
very  largely  for  seeding  purposes.  The  custom 
is  to  close  the  second,  third  and  fourth  feeds,  leav- 
ing the  first  and  fifth  feeds  open.  It  is  advisable  to 
test  the  adjustment  out  before  beginning  to  plant  in 
the  field.  Since  kafir  corn  is  a  warm  weather  plant, 
the  planting  season  is  usually  after  the  regular  corn 


l6o  FARM    CROPS 

planting  time.  If  planted  when  the  ground  is  cold 
the  grain  may  rot  or  make  an  otherwise  poor  start. 
During  the  first  four  or  five  weeks  the  growth  is 
slow  and  the  plant  not  so  vigorous  as  ordinary 
corn.  When  the  crop  is  matured  the  grain  should 
not  be  taken  from  the  stalks  until  fairly  well  dried. 
The  custom  is  then  to  cut  the  tops  or  heads  from 
the  stalks  and  to  let  them  thoroughly  dry  out  in  the 
field  or  barn.  They  are  then  threshed  and  stored. 

The  grain  heats  when  stored  in  large  quantities 
and  for  this  reason  often  the  germinating  power  is 
destroyed.  Care  must  be  taken  in  this  respect  to 
secure  the  next  year's  seed.  Poor  seed  more  fre- 
quently results  from  the  way  the  grain  is  handled 
after  threshing  than  from  other  reasons.  In  cul- 
tivating do  just  as  is  the  custom  with  corn.  List- 
ing or  level  planting  may  be  practiced.  It  all 
depends  upon  the  locality  and  the  soil  conditions. 
Usually  three  to  four  months  are  required  to  mature 
the  crop.  When  both  grain  and  fodder  are  desired 
the  corn  harvester  may  be  used  for  cutting,  and 
shocking  may  be  done  in  order  to  cure  the  stalks 
and  grain.  For  general  feeding  during  the  winter 
time  the  shocks  containing  the  grain  can  be  hauled 
direct  to  the  feed  lot.  The  best  results  will  be  ob- 
tained, however,  by  threshing  and  grinding  the 
grain. 

KENTUCKY  BLUE  GRASS.— This  grass  does 
best  on  a  rich,  rather  moist  soil.  On  dry,  gravelly 
soil  it  will  start  very  well  if  sowed  in  the  fall  or 
early  spring,  but  the  hot,  dry  weather  of  summer 
will  arrest  its  growth  and  it  will  make  very  little 
pasturage  from  July  to  September.  In  many 
places  it  comes  up  and  maintains  itself  without 
sowing  seed.  When  grown  on  a  soil  which  suits, 


KENTUCKY   BLUE   GRASS 


161 


it  makes  most  excellent  hay.     When  grown  on  dry, 

gravelly  soil  the  hay  is  likely  to  be  wiry  and  poor. 

It  is  more  tenacious  than  the  other  meadow  grasses 

and  in  time  tends  to  run  out  the  timothy.     If  once 

introduced,  it  is  probable  that  it  will  go  all  over  the 

farm,  even  into  the  fence  corners.     It  will  produce 

very    nice    pasture 

early  in  the  spring, 

and   if  the  land   is 

fertile,   late   in   the 

fall.      It   should   be 

fully       understood, 

however,  that  blue 

grass  furnishes  but 

little       midsummer 

pasture  on  gravelly 

soil. 

Blue  grass  starts 
early  in  the  spring 
and  is  considered 
to  be  rather  better 
for  producing  milk 
than  young  clover. 
In  laying  down  a 
permanent  pasture 
it  is  customary  to 
fit  the  ground  un- 
usually well  and 
sow  about  I  bushel 
of  blue  grass  to  an 

acre,  allowing  14  pounds  to  the  bushel,  with  timothy, 
clover  and  orchard  grass.  It  starts  slowly  and 
does  not  make  a  good  pasture  grass  until  about  a 
year  from  sending;  therefore,  some  other  plants 
must  be  depended  upon  for  the  first  year.  Finally, 


KENTUCKY  BLUE  GRASS 

An  excellent  grass  indispensable 
for  permanent  pastures.  Once  firmly 
established  it  returns  of  itself  even 
though  the  land  be  plowed  and 
given  over  for  a  short  time  to  corn 
and  wheat.  It  is  not  grown  for 
hay.  It  is  best  appreciated  in  the 
Middle  Western  states. 


1 62  FARM    CROPS 

do  not  sow  it  for  pasture  on  gravelly  soil,  but  the 
clovers,  particularly  the  alsike,  with  orchard  grass 
and  timothy,  since  all  of  these  furnish  more  mid- 
summer pasture  than  blue  grass  does. 

LESPEDEZA.— See  Japan  Clover. 

LUPINES. — A  legume  valued  most  for  green 
manure.  Up  to  the  present  time  lupines  have  not 
entered  to  any  extent  into  American  farming.  In 
Europe  these  plants  are  cultivated  to  some  extent 
for  forage,  but  even  there  they  are  most  largely 
used  as  green  manures.  They  are  especially  valu- 
able for  this  purpose  on  the  light  sandy  soils  too 
poor  to  grow  anything  else.  They  are  not  suited 
to  calcareous  soils  or  to  wet  lands.  Seed  should  be 
sown  at  the  rate  of  iT/2  to  2  bushels  to  the  acre 
following  corn  planting  time.  In  the  Far  West, 
especially  in  Montana  and  Idaho,  some  of  the  wild 
varieties  are  grown  in  abundance  and  when  cut 
very  large  quantities  of  hay  are  secured.  It  is  not 
likely  that  these  plants  will  enter  to  any  extent  in 
American  agriculture. 

MAIZE.— See  Corn. 

MAMMOTH  CLOVER.— This  strong,  vigorous 
legume  calls  for  much  moisture  and  strong  land. 
Like  common  red  clover,  it  is  a  biennial  and  on  con- 
genial soils  lives  longer  than  the  common  red  clover. 
It  resembles  the  common  variety  in  form  and  leaves 
and  in  general  habit  of  growth.  The  stems  and 
heads  are  larger.  It  attains  to  a  greater  height, 
matures  later  in  the  season  and  its  roots  are  large 
and  penetrate  the  soil  to  a  great  depth.  One  crop 
of  hay  is  usually  obtained  and  after  that  is  har- 
vested little  pasture  is  secured.  It  grows  its  best 
in  fertile  soils  and  in  warm  and  cold  climates,  but 
it  does  not  have  the  wide  distribution  that  the  com- 


MAMMOTH    CLOVER  163 

mon  red  variety  enjoys.  It  occupies  the  same  place 
in  the  rotation  and  calls  for  the  same  methods  of 
seeding  and  preparation  that  are  given  the  common 
red  variety.  When  sown  alone,  the  usual  amount 
is  10  pounds  of  seed  to  the  acre,  but  when  sown  in 
combination  with  other  seeds,  this  amount  is  pro- 
portionately reduced. 

It  is  a  good  plan,  and  many  farmers  follow  it, 
to  seed  mammoth  clover  and  common  red  clover 
together.  By  so  doing  you  get  the  vigorous  early 
growth  in  the  spring  and  the  late  growing  in  the 
fall  of  the  red  variety  and  you  get  the  vigorous 
growing  of  the  mammoth  variety  during  the  sum- 
mer months.  The  mammoth  variety  is  more  inclined 
to  lodge  and  is  more  difficult  to  harvest  and  to  cure 
than  is  the  small  red  variety.  It  yields  a  little 
heavier  to  the  acre,  but  the  hay  is  coarser  and  is 
not  so  popular  with  feeders  nor  so  much  relished 
by  animals. 

Mammoth  clover  is  especially  prized  as  a  green 
manure.  Some  farmers  who  plan  to  plow  under 
the  crop  preparatory  to  corn  or  potatoes,  seed  it 
for  the  soil  effect  rather  than  for  its  value  as  hay. 
The  crop  is  pastured  and  often  very  severely.  But 
the  large  roots  and  coarse  stalks  furnish  the  soil 
an  abundance  of  vegetable  matter,  which  is  always 
to  the  liking  of  the  corn  plant  when  it  follows  after. 

MANGELS. — Of  all  the  root  crops,  the  mangel- 
wurzel  or  stock  beet  is,  perhaps,  the  most  important, 
both  as  to  feeding  value  and  amount  of  yield  to  the 
acre.  Turnips  make  a  valuable  catch  crop,  but  the 
mangel  must  be  sown  early  in  the  season  and  cul- 
tivated to  secure  a  satisfactory  yield.  The  freer  the 
ground  from  weed  seeds,  the  less  arduous  will  be 
the  work  of  cultivation. 


1 64 


FARM    CROPS 


The   soil   should   be   well   stirred,  harrowed   and 
leveled.     If  possible,  choose  a  well-drained  location 


THE  SUGAR    MANGEL 

This  is  the  Danish  improved  and  is  a  favor- 
ite with  many  feeders.  Its  sugar  content  is 
much  higher  than  the  common  varieties. 

and  give  a  liberal  application  of  well-rotted  manure. 
The  seed  may  be  put  in  with  an  ordinary  garden 
seed  drill  gauged  to  sow  rather  thickly  in  the  row 
to  insure  a  good  stand.  The  rows  should  be  run 


MANGELS  165 

about  20  inches  or  2  feet  apart,  as  the  tops  soon  fall 
over  and  shade  the  ground  between,  discouraging 
weed  growth.  As  soon  as  the  young  plants  can  be 
seen,  go  along  the  rows  and  pull  out  all  the  weeds, 
giving  the  young  plants  a  chance  to  get  a  good  start. 
In  a  week  take  the  hoe  and  cultivate  the  ground 
between  the  rows,  thinning  out  the  plants  as  you 
go  along.  This  may  be  done  by  taking  the  hoe  and 
skimming  off  the  unnecessary  plants  near  the  top 
of  the  ground,  using  care  not  to  disturb  those  you 
wish  to  save.  Six  inches  apart  in  the  row  is  as 
close  as  they  should  stand,  and  if  the  soil  is  in  good 
condition  and  rich,  8  to  10  inches  is  better. 

Give  shallow  cultivation  throughout  the  season, 
or  until  the  plants  spread  out  and  cover  the  space 
between  the  rows,  when  they  may  be  left  to  their 
growth.  They  should  not  be  harvested  until  Oc- 
tober or  November,  when  they  may  be  stored  like 
turnips  and  cabbage. 

MEADOW  FESCUE.— An  exceedingly  valuable 
plant  for  use  in  part  in  permanent  pastures.  It  is 
of  long  duration  and  in  the  Southern  states  remains 
green  over  winter.  Rich,  moist  clay  or  loam  soils 
are  most  fancied  by  it,  but  it  does  fairly  well  on 
all  kinds  of  soils,  even  if  they  are  dry.  Blue  grass 
and  orchard  grass  seem  to  resist  drouth  better  than 
this  fescue.  When  at  its  best  it  reaches  a  height 
of  4  or  5  feet,  though  2  or  3  feet  is  more  of  an 
average  when  seeded  with  other  grass  seeds.  It 
is  a  perennial  and  grows  in  bunches  like  orchard 
grass.  It  has  stout  fibrous  roots,  and  rather  abun- 
dant leaves  that  are  from  i  to  2  feet  in  length.  In 
seeding,  from  2  to  3  bushels  are  used  to  the  acre. 
It  is  seeded  just  as  timothy  is.  The  first  year  or 
two  it  is  not  conspicuous  in  growth,  but  after  the 


i66 


FARM    CROPS 


third  year  it  becomes  fully  established.  It  readily 
yields  from  I  to  2  tons  of  hay  to  the  acre.  The 
best  time  to  cut  is  when  the  plants  are  in  flower. 
It  is  a  very  good  crop  for  overflow  lands,  as  the 
overflows  do  not  damage  it.  Its  many  good  qual- 
ities should  place  it  in  every  grass  mixture,  whether 
for  pastures  or  meadows. 

MEADOW  FOXTAIL.— A  hardy  perennial 
much  like  timothy  in  appearance.  The  leaves  are 
short,  the  stalks  thick,  making  a  rather  coarse  hay. 
It  starts  to  grow  earlier  in  the  spring  than 
timothy,  but  does  not  do  very  well  alone. 
It  takes  about  two  years  to  get  it  fully  es- 
tablished. For  this  reason  it 
should  be  used  as  part  of  a  grass 
mixture,  either  for  permanent 
meadow  or  permanent  pasture. 
When  grown  alone  it  yields 
from  i  to  2  tons  to  the  acre.  It 
stands  high  manuring,  but  has  no 
inclination  to  spread  like  blue 
grass  or  Bermuda.  Its  chief  value 
is  in  mixtures  of  meadows  and 
pastures. 

MELILOTUS    ALBA.  —  See 
Sweet  Clover. 

MILLETS.— A.  general  name 
that  includes  many  varieties  of 
While  this  group  includes  many  food 
products  the  millets  are  grown  in  this  country 
chiefly  for  forage.  Millet  is  a  popular  catch  crop. 
If  the  winter  wheat  has  failed,  or  for  some  reason 
the  corn  land  was  not  fitted  for  the  crop,  a  little 
later  on  the  land  can  be  prepared  and  seeded  to 
some  variety  of  millet.  The  three  principal  groups 


MEADOW  FOXTAIL 


grasses. 


MILLETS  167 

are,  Foxtail,  Barnyard  and  Broom  Corn  millets. 
The  most  common  varieties  are  identified  with  the 
first  class,  including  Common,  German,  Hungarian 
and  Golden  Wonder. 

Japanese  millet  is  closely  allied  to  the  German 
variety.  There  are  several  different  millets,  how- 
ever, that  come  under  the  name  of  Japanese.  The 
Barnyard  millets  are  known  as  barnyard  grass  and 
very  common.  In  this  country  they  are  used  ex- 
clusively for  forage,  although  in  India  the  grain 
is  largely  used  as  food  for  the  people. 

Pearl  millet,  a  variety  that  has  received  a  good 
deal  of  advertising  in  recent  years,  goes  under 
many  names,  among  which  are  Penicillaria,  Egyp- 
tian millet  and  Cat  Tail  millet.  This  variety  is 
erect,  growing  to  a  height  of  from  8  to  16  feet.  It 
bears  its  seeds  in  a  slender,  cylindrical  head  which 
varies  from  8  to  12  inches  in  length.  It  is  a  very 
succulent  annual  and  there  is  much  difference  of 
opinion  as  to  its  usefulness.  It  is  a  heavy  producer 
and  may  be  cut  two  or  three  times  during  a  season. 
It  is  not  liked  so  well  as  a  hay  crop,  because  of  the 
difficulty  of  curing.  It  is  much  valued  for  pastur- 
ing or  soiling. 

Millet  is  really  a  summer  crop  and  likes  warm 
weather.  It  also  likes  warm  soils.  It  is  frequently 
seeded  in  poor  land,  but  the  crop  really  requires 
a  fertile  soil.  A  strong  objection  to  the  crop  from 
the  soil  standpoint  is  the  fact  that  it  feeds  only  near 
the  surface.  On  account  of  the  rank  growth  much 
moisture  is  necessary  if  a  heavy  crop  is  to  be  ob- 
tained. For  this  reason  clay  loams  are  best.  In 
moist  climates  where  the  summer  rainfall  is  rather 
liberal,  the  sandy  soils,  if  fairly  fertile,  will  produce 
abundantly. 


1 68  FARM    CROPS 

The  usual  time  to  seed  is  after  corn  planting  or 
any  time  during  June.  The  seed  bed  should  be 
deep  and  well  prepared.  The  millet  seeds  are  small 
and,  therefore,  a  thorough  preparation  of  the  ground 
pays.  About  a  half  bushel  to  the  acre  is  used  for 
seed  when  the  Hungarian,  German  or  Common 
millets  are  grown,  but  when  the  Broom  Corn  or 
Barnyard  millets  are  grown,  heavier  seeding  is 
necessary.  The  usual  custom  is  to  seed  broadcast 
and  slightly  cover  with  a  harrow.  In  some  places 
the  seed  is  drilled.  The  crop  can  be  cut  for  soiling 
in  about  two  months  and  a  period  slightly  longer 
than  this  will  mature  a  crop  of  hay. 

When  millet  hay  is  fed  to  horses  disorder  often 
results,  placing  the  crop  in  the  undesirable  list  of 
hay  feeds  for  horses.  No  trouble  has  ever  been 
occasioned  when  fed  to  other  classes  of  live  stock. 
When  millet  has  been  used  as  a  soiling  crop  or  put 
into  a  silo  it  has  been  very  favorably  used  as  a  horse 
feed.  It  is  advisable  in  harvesting  to  allow  the 
millet  to  lay  some  hours  before  raking.  The  stems 
being  large  and  succulent,  some  time  is  necessary 
for  the  drying-out  process.  A  good  practice  is  to 
put  the  millet  in  shocks  from  the  windrows  and  to 
let  the  hay  cure  in  the  shocks  for  several  days.  In 
warm  weather  there  is  no  difficulty  in  curing  the 
hay,  but  if  the  season  is  against  rapid  curing,  millet 
is  more  difficult  to  handle  than  clover. 

Anywhere  from  2  to  4  tons  to  the  acre  may  be 
obtained.  The  Japanese  variety  yields  very  heavily 
and  is  one  of  our  most  desirable  soiling  varieties. 
Indeed  the  heaviest  yielding  millet  is,  without  doubt, 
the  Japanese  barnyard  variety.  If  grown  for  seed 
in  good  soils,  from  65  to  90  bushels  are  procurable 
from  an  acre.  On  lighter  soils  the  yield  drops  down 


MILLETS  169 

to  20  or  30  bushels.  Japanese  foxtail  is  a  good 
yielding  variety  and  when  carefully  grown  in  the 
same  land  as  the  preceding  variety  yields  all  the 
way  from  40  to  55  bushels  to  the  acre.  Japanese 
broom  corn  millet  gives  a  very  heavy  seed,  but  does 
not  yield  as  much  as  the  others.  In  the  neighbor- 
hood of  30  bushels  is  considered  a  fair  average  for 
average  soils.  The  German  millet  yields  about  the 
same  as  the  Japanese  foxtail  millet. 

While  any  of  the  millets  are  excellent  as  feed, 
caution  must  be  observed  when  used  as  such.  They 
should  be  fed  sparingly  and  in  combination  with 
other  foods.  Their  laxative  action  when  green  af- 
fects the  digestive  organs  and  if  fed  in  too  large 
quantities,  disorders  and  disturbances  arise.  The 
seeds,  when  well  formed,  produce  an  injurious 
effect  on  the  kidneys  of  the  horse. 

As  a  farm  crop,  millet  has  its  place.  While  not 
generally  used  as  a  fixed  crop  in  a  fixed  rotation 
system,  it  can  frequently  be  employed  with  great 
satisfaction  and  profit.  When  the  pasture  and  hay 
crops  are  short  for  any  reason  these  can  be  easily 
supplemented  by  growing  millet.  Millet  is  fortunate 
in  being  usually  free  from  fungous  pests  and  in- 
sects. Whenever  any  of  the  fungous  diseases  or 
insects  are  found,  they  do  little  damage  to  the  crop. 

MILO  MAIZE. — A  non-saccharine  sorghum. 
The  plant  tillers  abundantly  and  produces  tall, 
slender  and  succulent  leaf  stalks.  The  seed  is  in 
a  compact  sorghum-like  head.  Two  varieties  are 
cultivated :  the  white  Milo  and  the  yellow  Milo. 
The  first  demands  a  long  growing  season  to  reach 
maturity,  but  the  yellow  is  rather  early.  The  habit 
of  growth  is  erect  and  a  great  height  is  attained. 
The  plants  produce  an  abundance  of  leaves,  all  of 


I7O  FARM    CROPS 

which  are  of  fine  quality.  A  rich  soil  is  wanted, 
but  in  dry  regions  the  kafir  corn  and  ordinary 
sorghums  are  more  popular  than  this  forage  plant. 
It  is  used  only  for  soiling  or  as  a  fodder. 

MUSKMELONS. — In  growing  melons  the 
ground  should  be  prepared  about  the  same  as  for 
corn.  It  should  be  marked  off  4  feet  each  way, 
using  a  one-horse  turning  plow,  one  way,  furrow- 
ing out  rows  to  the  depth  of  about  6  inches.  Use 
about  one  scoopful  of  well-rotted  stable  manure  to 
three  or  four  hills,  being  careful  to  get  manure 
well  down.  Cover  with  soil  and  press  it  down  well, 
then  drop  seed  on  top  of  same,  covering  about  I 
inch  deep.  If  troubled  with  mice  taking  seed,  they 
can  be  controlled  to  a  great  extent  with  poison. 
Commence  cultivation  within  a  few  days  after 
planting;  deep  at  first,  reducing  the  depth  as  the 
plants  come  up  and  grow.  When  vines  get  too 
much  in  the  way  for  cultivation,  turn  them  all  one 
way,  keeping  the  cultivation  up  at  least  once  a  week 
until  they  begin  to  ripen  fruit,  if  the  season  is  dry. 
The  cultivation  should  continue  in  proportion  to 
dryness  of  season. 

The  greatest  mistake  in  cultivating  melons  is 
running  implements  too  deep  after  vines  commence 
to  spread.  Remember  the  roots  are  near  the  top 
of  the  soil,  spreading  out  from  the  hill  about  the 
same  as  the  vines.  After  vines  get  a  foot  in  length, 
the  depth  of  cultivation  should  be  reduced  to  not 
over  i  inch. 

OAT  GRASS.— -See  Tall  Oat  Grass. 

OATS.— The  oat  crop  ranks  second  in  yield  and 
third  in  acreage  in  the  United  States.  But  we 
usually  take  this  important  and  sturdy  assistant 
as  a  matter  of  course;  we  slightly  appreciate  its 


OATS  171 

greatness,  and  give  it  the  least  attention  and  care 
of  any  of  our  leading  crops.  On  the  average  farm, 
where  it  annually  fills  its  place  so  completely,  so 
fully  and  so  well,  it  is  talked  about,  discussed  and 
considered  least  of  any  of  the  crops  on  the  farm. 
The  crop  does  its  work  so  constantly,  so  evenly 
and  so  uncomplainingly  of  either  soil,  fertilizer  or 
season  that  we  have  come  to  think  of  it  as  stead- 
fast and  sure.  This  is,  after  all,  a  compliment 
rather  than  a  slight,  but  it  is  not  a  very  apprecia- 
tive attitude  to  assume  to  so  constant  a  friend. 

Who  talks  about  soil  best  adapted  to  oats?  What 
fertilizer  pays  court  to  it?  Who  searches  for  its 
ancestry  or  shows  the  advantage  of  superior 
breeding?  What  friend  enters  the  list  to  cham- 
pion it?  These  things  are  not  said  complainingly, 
rather  simply  to  call  attention  to  one  of  our  most 
meritorious  and  leading  crops,  that  its  culture,  too, 
may  be  studied  and  the  best  skill  given  to  its  im- 
provement. 

While  oats  may  be  grown  on  any  type  of  soil — 
poor  clay,  sandy  loam,  peaty  land — the  crop  is  at 
its  best  when  favored  with  a  well-drained  fertile 
clay  or  clay  loam.  The  choicest  fields,  as  a  rule, 
go  to  corn  or  wheat  or  cotton  and  the  less  desirable 
are  turned  over  to  oats,  the  owner  knowing  in  his 
own  mind  that  they  will  give  a  good  account  of 
their  occupancy. 

The  Seed  Bed  and  Seeding. — Good  preparation  of 
the  soil  pays  for  oats  as  it  pays  for  other  crops. 
The  seed  bed  should  be  prepared  by  plowing  rather 
than  by  disking  and  harrowing.  This  poor  prepara- 
tion often  explains  the  poor  stands  and  light  grain 
and  straw  we  often  see.  Heavy  lands  in  the  North 
may  be  plowed  with  profit  in  the  fall,  and  in  the 


172  FARM    CROPS 

South  they  may  be  plowed  during  the  winter  sea- 
son. Since  the  oat  crop  is  hardy  and  can  stand 
considerable  cold  and  moisture,  it  is  our  earliest 
field  crop  to  go  into  the  ground  in  the  spring. 
Hence  early  preparation  of  the  soil  aids  in  seed 
sowing  as  soon  as  winter  weather  has  disappeared. 
A  week  or  two  gained  at  seeding  time  is  to  be  pre- 
ferred to  an  extension,  when  warm  and  drier 
weather  comes. 

It  pays  to  give  attention  to  the  preparation  of 
land.  You  should  compact  the  soil,  using  the  roller 
if  necessary,  and  rid  the  land  of  clods  and  uneven 
places.  The  same  care  as  that  given  to  wheat  or 
corn  will  pay  with  oats.  In  seeding  use  from  2  to 
3  bushels  to  the  acre.  As  commonly  practiced, 
oats  may  be  disked  or  drilled,  but  the  latter  has 
proven  more  satisfactory  because  of  evenness  of 
distribution  and  covering  of  seed.  The  seed  should 
be  covered  to  a  depth  of  from  2  to  3  inches.  Fall 
seeding  of  oats  in  the  Northern  states  has  not 
proven  very  satisfactory,  the  best  time  being  from 
the  last  of  February  to  the  first  week  in  April,  the 
nature  of  the  season  influencing  the  time.  Spring 
seeding  in  the  South  should  be  a  month  to  six 
weeks  earlier  than  the  time  suggested  for  more 
northern  latitudes.  The  best  time  for  seeding  oats 
in  the  Southern  states  is  between  the  middle  of 
October  and  the  first  of  December.  They  grow 
more  or  less  during  the  winter  months,  get  a  good 
start  when  spring  opens,  and  are  matured  before 
hot  weather  arrives. 

Manures  May  Be  Used. — Where  corn  has  pre- 
ceded the  oat  crop  and  been  heavily  fertilized  with 
stable  manure  and  chemical  fertilizers  as  well,  and 
rduring  the  season  well  cultivated,  you  have  quite 


OATS  173 

an  ideal  preparation  for  oats.  But  some  manur- 
ing will  pay  for  the  crop.  Not  stable  manure,  for 
that  you  can  better  employ  on  the  clover  or  pea 
land  for  corn.  If  your  soil  naturally  tends  to  "  down  " 
oats,  use  no  nitrogen  in  the  fertilizer,  only  potas- 
sium and  phosphorus.  Make  your  own  fertilizer 
by  mixing  1,800  pounds  of  14  per  cent  acid  phos- 
phate and  200  pounds  of  muriate  of  potash,  using 
about  100  pounds  to  the  acre.  For  worn-out  land 
a  fertilizer  consisting  of  1,600  pounds  of  acid  phos- 
phate, 200  pounds  of  cottonseed  meal,  and  200 
pounds  of  muriate  of  potash  is  a  satisfactory  com- 
bination for  oats.  From  150  to  250  pounds  may  be 
used  to  the  acre. 

Where  oats  follow  cowpeas  in  the  fall,  or  clover 
in  the  spring,  the  nitrogen  constituent  of  the  fer- 
tilizer may  be  eliminated  and  the  first-named  fer- 
tilizer used.  The  cowpea  field,  its  crop  of  peas 
harvested  and  made  into  hay,  is  ideal  for  oat  pro- 
duction. Plowing  is  unnecessary,  since  it  is  to  be 
supposed  that  the  land  has  been  thoroughly  broken 
as  a  preparation  for  peas,  and  now  the  disk  only 
is  needed  to  chop  the  stubble  and  loosen  the  top 
soil.  The  pea  roots  have  gone  deep  into  the  soil, 
and  have  opened  and  loosened  it  for  air  circulation, 
and  rendered  the  soil  comfortable — a  good  thing  to 
the  less  vigorous  roots  of  the  oat  plant. 

For  Hay  or  Grain. — "  I  never  let  my  oats  ripen. 
I  prefer  to  cut  them  early  and  make  them  into 
hay,"  said  a  speaker  at  an  institute  last  summer. 

"What  is  your  reason  for  that?"  was  the  ques- 
tion at  once  asked.  He  answered :  "  Because  I  am 
after  hay,  and  when  oats  are  cut  while  yet  green 
and  while  still  in  the  dough  state,  they  make  a  most 
desirable  feeding  stuff  in  every  way  for  all  kinds 


174 


FARM    CROPS 


of  farm  animals."  The  speaker  was  correct  in  his 
estimate  of  oat  hay.  It  is  a  superior  feeding  stuff. 
When  cut  sufficiently  early,  horses,  cattle  and  calves 
relish  not  only  the  grain  contained  in  it,  but  find 
the  straw  appetizing  and  nourishing. 

In  those  sections  where  hay  is  always  at  a  pre- 
mium this  method  of  harvesting  is  doubtless  best, 
and  even  where  hay  crops  flourish  well  it  may  still 
be  preferable  to  make  hay  of  the  oat  crop  rather 
than  to  harvest  the  crop,  thresh  the  grain  and  in  the 
end  to  feed  both  straw  and  grain  to  the  farm  stock. 
Is  this  not  worth  thinking  about? 

"  You  wish  to  sell  the  grain,"  I  hear  some  one 
say.  Very  well ;  in  that  case  you  will  be  obliged 
to  allow  the  crop  to  fully  mature  before  harvesting 
it.  You  will  secure  your  seed  as  well.  It  seems 
reasonable  that,  all  things  considered,  where  hay  is 
scarce,  it  is  better  to  make  hay  of  the  entire  crop 
than  grain  and  straw  and  then  be  obliged  to  either 
purchase  hay  or  be  short  in  roughage  material. 
This  is  of  somewhat  more  importance  where  the 
ordinary  hay  crops  flourish  only  with  difficulty, 
being  thereby  scarce  and  costly. 

The  Feeding  Value. — When  we  compare  oat  hay 
and  timothy  we  find  that  the  former  is  superior,  as 
seen  in  the  following  table : 


DRY 

D1GESTIBLI 

S  NUTRIENTS 

IN  100  LBS. 

HAY 

MATERIAL 

Protein 

Carbohydrates 

Fat 

Oat  Hay 

91.1 

4.3 

46.4 

1.5 

Timothy  

86.6 

2.8 

43.4 

1.4 

OATS  175 

While  oat  hay  contains  more  dry  matter  and 
crude  fiber,  it  is  higher  in  digestible  protein,  an 
item  of  considerable  importance.  These  facts  sug- 
gest that  oats  may  be  grown  to  much  greater  ex- 
tent than  now  as  a  partial  solution  to  a  scarcity  of 
hay  in  Southern  sections  of  the  country. 

Variety  to  Use. — We  have  in  all  nearly  150  va- 
rieties of  oats,  and  it  is  quite  impossible  to  say 
which  one  is  best.  The  fact  is  there  is  no  one  best 
any  more  so  than  there  is  a  best  breed  of  cattle, 
or  of  sheep,  or  of  swine.  The  variety  best  for  me 
may  not  be  best  for  you ;  the  variety  for  the  South- 
ern farmer  is  never  very  desirable  for  the  Northern 
farmer.  A  neighbor  said  to  me  a  couple  of  years 
ago :  "  I  am  going  to  try  the  new  variety  of  oats 
this  year  that  is  so  extensively  advertised." 

"For  your  entire  crop?"  I  asked. 

"  Yes,  certainly ;  if  I  use  these  new  oats  at  all  I 
can't  bother  with  some  other  kind  besides." 

I  suggested  that  it  might  be  well  to  do  so.  I  told 
him  that  I  had  been  trying  each  year  in  a  small  way 
several  kinds  of  oats,  and  corn,  and  wheat,  and 
peas,  and  other  crops,  and  found  considerable 
variation  in  the  results.  I  suggested  that  it  might 
be  wise  to  use  the  kind  he  had  always  used,  and 
which  I  knew  was  reasonably  satisfactory,  and  try 
the  new  oats  in  a  small  way,  an  acre,  perhaps.  If 
the  new  variety  proved  at  home  under  his  soil  and 
climatic  conditions,  then  he  could  abandon  the  old 
kind  that  had  been  fairly  true  and  faithful  to  him; 
he  would  from  his  acre  trial  plot  have  sufficient 
seed  for  his  entire  crop  the  next  year.  My  neigh- 
bor followed  this  plan.  The  new  variety  was  an 
utter  failure.  He  has  more  faith  in  the  old  variety 
now.  If  he  will  select  his  seed  with  care,  as  he 


176  FARM    CROPS 

does  his  live  stock  for  breeding  purposes,  improve- 
ment will  result  to  his  satisfaction  and  profit. 

If  you  are  dissatisfied  with  the  kind  you  are 
growing  because  of  inferiority,  and  poor  yields, 
you  had  better  start  over  again,  this  time  using 
one  of  the  old  and  tried  varieties  that  is  at  home 
in  your  section.  Some  of  these  are  the  following: 
For  the  West  and  North — Lincoln,  American  Ban- 
ner, Early  Dakota,  Welcome,  Seizure,  Pringle's 
Progress,  White  Bonanza,  Wideawake,  Clydesdale 
and  Monarch.  For  the  Southern  states — Virginia 
Turf,  Virginia  Gray,  Red  Rust  Proof,  Gray  Winter 
and  Beardless.  When  you  once  get  a  variety 
adapted  to  your  conditions,  help  it  out  by  selecting 
seed. 

Improving  the  Variety. — If  you  set  out  to  improve 
oats,  have  in  mind  only  desirable  features  and  do 
not  make  the  mistake  of  extending  your  work  in 
too  many  directions.  A  few  important  character- 
istics well  established  are  more  to  be  desired  than 
an  attempt  with  only  indifferent  results.  A  few 
features  that  should  be  included  in  every  breeding 
operation  are  these: 

I.  Hardiness  and  freedom  from  rust.  A  rust- 
resisting  variety  would  be  superior  for  that  feature 
alone,  and  would  command  favor  in  every  direction. 
2.  Earliness.  Oats  are  partial  to  cool  and  moist 
climatic  conditions,  hence  the  earlier  they  mature 
the  more  satisfactory  are  the  results.  3.  Strength 
of  straw.  A  common  trouble  with  oats  where  land 
is  fertile  is  their  tendency  to  "  down."  Keep  this 
weakness  in  mind  when  breeding  for  improvement. 
4.  Heavier  yield  in  grain.  There  is  an  open  field 
in  this  direction. 

Treating    for    Smut. — Smut    is    so    common,    so 


OATS  177 

widely  scattered  and  so  destructive  and  yet  so 
easily  prevented  by  simple  remedies,  there  should 
be  no  hesitation  in  doing  this  work  and  in  keeping 
it  up  year  after  year.  Not  long  ago  a  prominent 
New  York  farmer,  a  friend  and  myself  were  walk- 
ing in  the  country  and  came  to  a  field  of  winter 
oats.  They  looked  fine  and  promised  to  make  a 
fine  crop.  "  Do  you  know,"  our  New  York  com- 
panion remarked,  "  it  is  wonderful  what  can  be 
done  by  treating  oats  for  smut." 

"In  what  way?"  I  asked. 

"  In  not  only  preventing  it,  but  also  in  greatly 
increasing  the  yield  and  weight.  I  have  only  re- 
cently treated  my  oats,  but  I  am  sure  it  adds  10  per 
cent  to  the  commercial  value.  A  neighbor  of  mine 
didn't  believe  in  doing  this.  Last  year  he  borrowed 
my  drill.  In  the  drill  was  perhaps  a  bushel  of  seed 
left  over  from  my  seed  oats.  My  seed  had  been 
treated  and  I  told  my  neighbor  to  use  them  and 
then  later  compare  with  his  own  if  treating  seed 
was,  worth  anything  anyway.  Well,  gentlemen, 
that  test  completely  convinced  not  only  that  neigh- 
bor, but  several  others  as  well,  and  now  nearly  all 
seed  oats  are  treated  in  our  neighborhood." 

At  maturing  time,  examine  a  few  heads  in  the 
oat  field.  You  are  sure  to  be  surprised  at  the  num- 
ber of  diseased  heads.  I  have  often  counted  from 
30  to  40  in  every  hundred  affected  with  smut.  This 
is  a  tremendous  loss ;  and,  just  think  of  it,  for  a  few 
cents  per  acre  seed  can  be  treated  and  the  disease 
entirely  eradicated.  Smut  ripens  just  at  the  time 
the  plant  is  in  the  flower.  Being  loose  and  light, 
it  is  easily  blown  by  the  wind,  thus  leaving  the 
heads  bare  of  grain  and  black. 

The   most   common   way   of  treating   seed   oats 


178  FARM   CROPS 

is  to  soak  for  30  minutes  in  a  solution  of  formalin 
containing  I  pound  to  50  gallons  of  water.  For- 
malin may  be  purchased  at  any  drug  store,  and 
costs  about  75  cents  a  pound.  Still  another  way 
to  use  formalin  is  to  take  one-third  as  many  ounces 
as  you  have  bushels  of  seed  oats  to  treat;  mix  an 
ounce  in  3  gallons  of  water,  or  the  whole  quantity 
in  water  at  rate  of  3  gallons  for  every  ounce  of 
formalin.  Each  gallon  of  the  solution  will  treat  I 
bushel  of  oats.  This  is  a  good  way  to  do  this  work : 
Spread  the  seed  thinly  upon  the  barn  floor  and 
sprinkle  with  the  solution,  being  careful  that  all 
seeds  are  wet.  Cover  closely  with  blankets  for  a 
few  hours  and  plant  very  soon  after  treatment.  In 
drying  the  seed,  spread  thinly  in  the  sun  and  fre- 
quently stir  and  air.  Another  method  for  prevent- 
ing smut  is  to  sprinkle  the  seed  thoroughly  with  a 
solution  of  blue  vitriol ;  to  prepare  use  I  pound  to 
10  gallons  of  water. 

Oats  and  Peas  for  Forage. — Plow  the  land  as  for 
corn.  Sow  a  bushel  of  Canada  field  peas  to  the 
acre  and  cover  4  inches  deep.  A  few  days  later 
sow  oats  at  the  rate  of  2  bushels  to  the  acre.  The 
delay  in  sowing  the  oats  gives  the  peas  a  start,  and 
brings  the  two  crops  along  together.  A  more  com- 
mon practice  is  to  mix  Canada  field  peas  and  oats  in 
proportion  of  I  bushel  of  peas  to  2  of  oats,  and  sow 
with  wheat  drill.  Both  methods  are  good. 

ORCHARD  GRASS.— A  very  desirable  perennial 
grass  for  hay.  It  grows  2  to  4  feet  high  and  yields 
from  2  to  3  tons  to  the  acre  when  grown  alone.  It 
has  an  abundant  aftermath  and  shortly  after  being 
cut  shows  growth  and  greenness.  It  is  quite  at 
home  in  shade,  and  for  this  reason  is  quite  suited 
for  woods,  orchards  and  pastures  where  many  trees 


ORCHARD   GRASS 


179 


abound.  A  good  time  to  cut  is  when  the  grass  is 
in  bloom.  If  mowing  is  postponed  the  hay  is  in- 
clined to  be  woody.  Usually  two  cuttings  may  be 
obtained  in  one  year  and 
sometimes  three.  The 
grass  grows  in  tufts  and 
if  grown  alone  not  all  the 
ground  is  covered.  For 
this  reason  other  grasses 
should  be  mixed  with  it, 
like  timothy,  clover  and 
blue  grass.  The  seed  may 
be  sown  in  the  fall  or 
spring,  using  2  to  3 
bushels  to  the  acre.  Sow 
broadcast  and  slightly 
cover  with  a  harrow.  Or- 
chard grass  starts  quickly 
and  may  be  pastured  the 
first  year.  Its  greatest 
merit  lies  in  its  abun- 
dance of  forage,  its  early 
growth  in  the  spring,  and 
its  defiance  to  drouth. 
The  tramping  by  stock 
does  it  little  injury.  No 

mixture  of  permanent  pastures  or  meadows  is  quite 
complete  without  some  orchard  grass  seed. 

PEANUTS. — A  valuable  feeding  stuff,  good  as 
food  for  man  and  beast,  and  good  for  the  soil  as  an 
improver.  For  man,  it  furnishes  protein  and  ash 
materials  in  considerable  quantities,  and  for  farm 
animals  it  is  an  extremely  valuable  balancing  food 
to  go  with  corn  and  other  carbonaceous  feeds  dur- 
ing the  growing  season.  As  a  soil  improver  it  ranks 


ORCHARD  GRASS 
A  splendid  mowing  crop 
and  a  good  pasture  grass. 
It  likes  rather  fertile,  moist 
soils,  and  is  not  averse  to 
shade.  The  best  results  are 
obtained  when  other 
grasses  and  clovers  are 
mixed  with  it. 


ISO  FARM    CROPS 

with  all  leguminous  crops.  If  the  grower  fertilizes 
his  peanut  land  abundantly  with  phosphorus,  potas- 
sium and  lime — for  let  it  be  known  that  peanuts 
relish  lime  in  considerable  quantities — his  land 
ought  to  be  more  fertile  and  productive  after  each 
succeeding  year.  Peanut  lands  suffer,  as  a  rule, 
from  the  depletion  of  the  mineral  elements.  Of 
course  a  considerable  quantity  of  these  mineral 
elements  enters  into  the  growth  of  the  kernel. 

Now,  as  the  peanut  uses  a  considerable  quantity 
of  mineral  materials,  it  follows  that  if  good  growth 
and  productive  yields  are  to  be  obtained,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  add  such  elements  in  the  fertilizers.  Pea- 
nut lands  also  lose  considerable  fertility  and  value 
through  the  constant  washing  during  the  winter 
season.  This  is  not  necessary,  because  some  grow- 
ing crops  can  follow  peanuts  so  as  to  prevent  the 
washing  and  the  leaching  of  the  soil.  Crimson 
clover  is  a  good  winter  crop.  If  difficulty  is  en- 
countered in  securing  stands  in  sandy  lands,  a  crop 
like  rye  is  excellent  for  the  winter  season.  Since 
a  rotation  of  crops  is  as  important  in  peanut  grow- 
ing as  in  any  other  line  of  special  farming,  it  fol- 
lows that  it  is  not  wise  to  grow  peanuts  on  the 
same  land  every  year.  Follow  rye,  therefore,  with 
some  crop  like  cowpeas  or  some  vegetable  adding 
crop  or  even  corn.  Of  these,  cowpeas  are,  of  course, 
the  best. 

Peanuts,  while  grown  most  extensively  through 
Virginia,  North  Carolina  and  Tennessee,  can  be 
grown  in  most  sections  of  the  country.  In  fact,  it 
may  be  said  that  peanuts  will  grow  everywhere 
that  Indian  corn  succeeds.  A  loamy  soil  of  a  sandy 
nature  and  light  and  porous,  produces  the  most 
remunerative  peanuts.  However,  practically  any 


PEANUTS  l8l 

kind  of  soil  that  is  open  and  friable  and  that  can 
be  kept  so,  provided  there  is  lime  and  mineral 
elements,  will  do  for  the  crop.  The  objection  to 
the  clay  soil  lies  in  the  staining  of  the  pods.  So 
far  as  yield  and  weight  are  concerned,  the  clay  soils 
have  given  extremely  good  results.  In  fact,  the 
peanuts  on  such  soils  are  heavier  than  on  sandy 
soils.  The  clay  soils  being  colder  and  less  active, 
do  not  permit  as  early  planting  as  the  sandy  ones. 

It  has  been  mentioned  that  peanut  soils  require 
lime,  and  also  phosphorus  and  potassium.  Marl  is 
often  used  and  so  are  oyster  shells.  However,  com- 
mon limestone  answers  every  purpose  on  the 
peanut  farm.  As  a  rule,  30  bushels  of  lime  make 
a  good  application  to  the  acre.  Frequent  and  small 
applications  are  superior  to  infrequent  and  heavy 
applications  of  lime. 

Anyone  can  prepare  land  for  peanuts.  Any 
preparation  that  will  get  the  soil  to  a  good  depth 
of  plow,  and  then  thoroughly  harrowed  and  pul- 
verized to  the  depth  of  4  or  5  inches,  will  provide 
good  preparation.  A  common  practice  is  to  break 
the  land  with  an  ordinary  turning  plow  as  soon  as 
possible  in  the  spring,  and  then  follow  with  the 
harrow  and  the  roller  until  a  suitable  condition  of 
the  land  is  obtained.  About  2  bushels  of  nuts  in 
the  pod  are  sufficient  to  furnish  seed  for  an  acre. 
In  opening  the  pod  for  planting  purposes,  care  and 
attention  are  necessary  in  order  to  avoid  the  break- 
ing of  the  skin  of  the  kernel,  and  also  to  select  the 
more  perfect  kernels  as  they  are  shelled. 

Harvesting  Peanuts. — After  frost  run  the  point 
of  a  plow  under  the  vines  so  as  to  cut  the  roots  and 
then  lift  the  vines  with  the  adhering  pods  out  of  the 
soil  and  shake  free  from  dirt.  Lift  out  with  a  fork. 


1 82  FARM    CROPS 

When  wilted  stack  the  vines  loosely  around  a  pole 
about  7  feet  high,  using  some  sticks  under  them, 
to  keep  them  off  the  ground,  and  cap  with  hay  or 
straw.  If  stacked  in  large  stacks  or  too  closely, 
they  will  heat,  so  this  must  be  avoided.  After 
about  four  weeks  the  nuts  may  be  picked  from  the 
vines  and  stored  where  they  will  be  dry  and  well 
aired. 

PEARL  MILLET.— See  Millets. 
PERENNIAL    RYE    GRASS.— A     good     hay 
crop,  but  not  generally  grown.     If  planted  in  the 
spring  it  grows  abundantly,  being  ready  to  cut  in 
six  or  eight  weeks.       It  is 
very  succulent  in  character, 
but  abhors  dry  weather.     It 
is     good     in     pasture     and 
meadow  mixtures  and  about 
i  bushel  of  seed  to  the  acre 
should  be  used.    It  fancies  a 
fertile  soil  containing  much 
lime  and  one  moist  and  rich 
in  vegetable  matter.  It  abhors 
stiff  clays.     Where  timothy 
PERENNIAL  RYE  GRASS     does  well,  there  is  little  or 

Dry  soils  are  disastrous  no  Occasion  to  USC  this  grass, 

to    it,    as    are    also    stiff  ^-^^  »„,, 

clays.  It  is  most  useful  in  POLISH        WHEAT. — A 

mixtures  with   red   top  or  ,                ,                            , 

orchard   grass   which   in-   wheat   plant    somewhat    re- 

decrfali"  ™l™  "  the  rye  sembling  rye  in  general  ap- 

pearance.     It  is  rather  tall, 

the  stems  are  smooth  and  more  or  less  pithy  within. 
It  does  not  stool  to  any  extent.  It  bears  large 
heads  that  are  loosely  formed  before  ripening; 
these  are  bluish  green  in  color.  The  grains  are  hard, 
yellowish  to  white  in  color,  and  are  much  larger 
than  ordinary  wheat.  This  wheat  seems  to  be 


POTATOES  183 

best  adapted  to  the  arid  districts,  but  calls  for  a 
rather  fertile  soil  and  a  good  deal  of  moisture  at 
seeding  time.  Its  use  in  this  country  is  limited  to 
the  production  of  macaroni.  It  is  not  used  for 
breadmaking. 

POTATOES.— The  successful  production  of  a 
large  crop  of  merchantable  potatoes  is,  under  exist- 
ing conditions,  largely  dependent  upon:  (l)  Suit- 
able soil;  (2)  sufficient  plant  food;  (3)  good  seed 
of  desirable  varieties;  (4)  proper  culture;  and  (5) 
thorough  spraying.  Neglect  on  the  part  of  the 
grower  to  supply  any  or  all  of  these  conditions 
inevitably  lessens  the  resultant  crop. 

Soils  best  adapted  to  potato  culture  are  those  of 
well-drained,  sandy  or  gravelly  loam  or  clay  loam 
composition,  containing  an  abundance  of  humus 
and  fairly  retentive  of  moisture.  Those  that  are 
not  adapted  to  potato  culture  and  which  should  not 
be  used  where  possible  to  avoid  it,  are  very  heavy 
clay  or  very  light,  sandy  soils.  These  should  be 
avoided  because  of  their  poor  mechanical  texture. 
Other  soils  that  should  not  be  devoted  to  potato 
culture  are  those  that  are  low  or  moist.  These 
are  not  adapted  to  the  crop,  because  on  such  soils 
the  potato  vine  is  almost  sure  to  blight  badly. 
Good  air  and  soil  drainage  are  essential  to  success, 
at  least  to  the  greatest  degree  of  success. 

A  clover  sod  is  generally  considered  especially 
desirable  to  turn  under  for  a  potato  crop.  This 
should  be  plowed  in  the  fall  unless  the  exposure 
of  the  soil  is  such  as  to  cause  undue  washing  by 
heavy  fall  and  spring  rains.  Plow  as  deeply  as 
the  character  of  the  soil  will  permit,  say  6  to  8 
or  more  inches.  In  the  spring,  preparatory  to 
planting,  fit  the  land  as  thoroughly  as  possible  with 


184  FARM    CROPS 

cutaway  or  spring-tooth  and  smoothing  harrow. 
In  lieu  of  clover  sod,  any  land  answering  the  above 
requirements  that  is  in  good  tilth  will  give  fairly 
satisfactory  results.  Thorough  preparation  should 
be  the  keynote  of  any  soil. 

Fertilization  Necessary. — If  the  land  is  thought 
to  be  lacking  in  both  humus  and  plant  food,  these 
deficiencies  can  be  supplied  by  a  good  application 
of  barnyard  manure.  This  should  be  spread  on  the 
land  after  plowing  in  the  fall  and  thoroughly  in- 
corporated with  it  in  the  spring  fitting.  An  appli- 
cation of  stable  manure  in  the  spring  is  not  desir- 
able, as  this  practice  tends  to  produce  scabby 
tubers.  If  well-rotted  manure  is  available  it  may 
be  used.  Usually  on  all  soils  well  supplied  with 
humus,  commercial  fertilizers  will  serve  the  pur- 
pose much  better  than  barnyard  manures,  as  they 
may  be  applied  in  definite  proportions  to  suit  the 
needs  of  the  plants. 

Early  potatoes  require  more  liberal  application 
of  quick-acting  fertilizers  than  do  late  ones.  An 
application  of  1,000  pounds  of  a  commercial  fer- 
tilizer containing  nitrogen  5  per  cent,  phosphoric 
acid  8  per  cent  and  potash  10  per  cent,  has  been 
found  to  give  good  satisfaction  with  early  potatoes 
on  light  soils.  Much  larger  amounts  than  these 
are  frequently  used  by  truck  growers  near  large 
cities.  For  late  potatoes  a  less  active  fertilizer 
is  needed,  as  the  plants  have  more  time  in  which 
to  develop.  In  this  case  an  application  of  800  to 
1,000  pounds  commercial  fertilizer  containing  nitro- 
gen 2  to  3  per  cent,  phosphoric  acid  6  to  8  per  cent, 
and  potash  8  to  10  per  cent  is  considered  sufficient. 
Each  grower,  however,  must  determine,  in  a  large 
measure,  the  requirements  of  his  own  soil.  Com- 


POTATOES  I«5 

bination  manuring  with  commercial  fertilizers  and 
barnyard  manures  is  frequently  practiced  to  good 
advantage.  An  application  of  eight  to  ten  cords 
of  manure  to  the  acre  in  the  fall,  followed  with  500 
to  600  pounds  of  a  quick-acting- commercial  fertilizer 
when  fitting  the  land  or  dropped  in  the  furrow  at 


THE   POTATO   UNDERGROUND 

Here  are  shown  the  tubers  and  root  system  of  a  potato 
plant.  For  best  results  a  deeply  stirred  soil  is  desirable.  The 
intertillage  should  not  be  so  deep  as  to  interfere  with  the  root 
system  below. 

planting  time,  usually  insures  a  thrifty  growth  of 
plants.     Some  prefer  broadcasting. 

Good  Seed  of  Desirable  Varieties. — As  a  rule,  too 
little  attention  is  paid  by  the  average  grower  to  the 
quality  of  the  seed  tubers  or  to  the  selection  of 
desirable  varieties.  Seed  potatoes  kept  at  a  uni- 


1 86  FARM    CROPS 

formly  low  temperature  of  33  to  40  degrees  during 
the  winter  and  not  allowed  to  sprout  in  early  spring 
will  give  stronger  and  more  vigorous  plants  than 
those  kept  under  less  favorable  conditions,  because 
they  will  not  be  wilted  nor  will  their  stored  energy 
have  been  dissipated  by  premature  sprouting. 

Another  governing  factor  in  the  vigor  of  the 
plant  is  that  of  the  size  of  seed  tuber  used.  Gen- 
erally speaking,  the  use  of  one-eye  seed  pieces  will 
not  give  as  good  results  as  medium-sized  tubers 
halved  or  planted  whole.  There  are  some  excep- 
tions, however,  to  this  rule,  as  in  the  case  of  va- 
rieties having  numerous  eyes,  each  of  which  is 
capable  of  producing  several  sprouts.  With  such  va- 
rieties, a  one  or  two-eye  piece  will  give  better  satis- 
faction than  a  whole  or  half  tuber.  The  selection  of 
vigorous,  prolific  varieties  of  good  quality  ma- 
terially aids  in  the  production  of  a  profitable  potato 
crop.  A  good  commercial  variety  of  potato  for 
most  markets  should  have  white  or  flesh-colored 
skin,  be  smooth  and  regular,  roundish-oblong  or 
kidney-shaped,  shallow  eyes  and  mealy  when 
cooked. 

Seed  Bed  and  Cultivation. — Under  no  circum- 
stances should  the  potatoes  be  planted  until  the 
seed  bed  has  been  thoroughly  fined  and  compacted. 
Go  over  it  with  an  ordinary  harrow  until  every  clod 
is  broken  up  and  the  entire  portion  turned  by  the 
plow  thoroughly  compacted.  Plant  in  rows.  Some 
people  check,  but  in  most  potato-growing  districts 
this  is  not  necessary.  If  the  soil  is  naturally  fer- 
tile and  free  from  weeds,  the  potato  crop  can  be 
kept  clean  without  checking,  and,  as  a  rule,  larger 
crops  produced.  Cultivating  potatoes  is  of  very 
great  importance.  Not  only  must  weeds  be  kept 


POTATOES 


I87 


out  of  the  field,  but  cultivation  must  be  frequent, 
so  as  to  conserve  moisture.  Keep  it  up  just  as 
long  as  possible,  being  careful  not  to  disturb  the 
roots,  particularly  after  the  potatoes  begin  to  set. 
If  the  potatoes  have  been  planted  in  long  rows, 
very  little  hand  culture  is  necessary.  It  will  be 
advisable  to  go  over  the  field  at  least  once  with  the 
hoe  while  the  plants  are  young,  so  as  to  clean  out 
all  weeds  that  are  of  any  considerable  size.  By 


POTATO   TRAY 

A  useful  potato  tray  for  the  storage  and  sprouting  of 
seed  beds.  The  dimensions  given  here  can  be  readily  followed 
in  making  this  tray. 


that   time,   however,   there   ought   to   be   but   few 
weeds  in  the  field. 

Kill  Off  the  Bugs.— If  potato  bugs  attack 
the  vines,  spray  with  paris  green.  If  a  cheap 
spraying  pump  is  not  at  hand,  mix  one  teaspoonful 
of  paris  green  with  three  gallons  of  water  and  for 
a  sprinkler  use  a  bunch  of  timothy  heads.  See  that 
all  the  potato  tops  are  coated  with  green,  then  the 
bugs  will  not  do  much  damage.  If  a  heavy  rain 
comes  soon  after  applying  the  spray,  repeat.  After 
the  potatoes  have  been  half  raised  it  pays  to  go  to 


1 88  FARM    CROPS 

a  good  deal  of  trouble  to  prevent  their  being  de- 
stroyed by  bugs. 

Potato  Blight. — Late  blight  or  rust  is  caused  by 
a  fungus,  a  kind  of  mildew,  which  is  carried  through 
the  winter  in  the  seed.  Where  such  infected  po- 
tatoes are  planted  the  fungus  develops  in  the  potato 
shoots  and  finally  causes  the  blight  of  the  leaves, 
providing  weather  conditions  are  at  all  favorable. 
The  germs  or  spores  are  produced  in  enormous 
numbers  on  these  blighting  leaves  and  by  these  the 
infection  is  spread  to  neighboring  plants.  Many 
of  the  spores  fall  to  the  ground  also,  and  invading 
the  tubers,  cause  the  rot.  Spraying  with  bordeaux 
kills  the  spores,  and  so  prevents  both  the  blight  of 
the  leaves  and  the  rot  of  the  tubers. 

Selecting  Seed  Potatoes. — In  the  selection  of  seed 
potatoes  there  is  but  one  safe  rule  to  follow.  Pro- 
cure it  from  that  place  where  it  is  the  most  perfect 
and  healthy,  where  the  yield  under  favorable  con- 
ditions is  the  largest,  and  where  the  character  of 
the  soil  and  the  conditions  of  climate  are  similar  to 
your  own.  The  development  of  the  potato  as  to 
quality  and  productiveness  is  more  due  to  proper 
care  in  selection  for  seed  purposes  than  to  all  other 
causes  combined.  This  care  is  a  simple  matter,  so 
simple  that  its  importance  is  rarely  understood  or 
appreciated.  The  usual  one  of  selecting  the  most 
desirable  tubers  from  the  bin  at  the  time  of  plant- 
ing is  but  the  first  step  in  the  line  of  improvement, 
and  that  step  often  a  mistaken  one,  as  the  ones 
chosen  may  be  the  only  ones  to  be  found  in  a  hill, 
and  the  ones  selected  may  represent  as  many  hills 
as  there  are  specimens  selected. 

The  proper  method  to  pursue  is  to  go  over  the 
field  at  the  time  of  harvest,  select  vines  that  are 


POTATOES  189 

strong  and  stocky,  not  long  or  straggling.  Care- 
fully take  up  with  a  fork,  and  if  the  potatoes  in  that 
hill  or  from  one  given  vine  are  all  of  a  uniform 
shape  and  of  a  desired  size,  such  are  the  proper 
ones  to  select  for  stock,  and  none  others.  One  of 
the  laws  of  reproduction  is  that  "  like  produces 
like,"  and  where  there  is  but  one  well-formed 
potato  in  a  hill  or  from  one  vine,  the  offspring  will 
too  closely  resemble  the  parent.  We  are  familiar 
with  this  practice,  and  know  the  results  are  of  far 
greater  importance  than  we  have  stated,  that  the 
annual  crop  is  more  than  double  than  where  ordi- 
nary methods  of  taking  best-looking  specimens  from 
the  bin  are  followed  and  the  quality  is  better. 

Digging  and  Storing. — Potatoes  should  never  be 
stored  immediately  after  digging,  but  should  be 
allowed  to  dry.  If  picked  up  directly  after  dig- 
ging, unless  taken  to  market  at  once  for  shipment 
or  to  the  starch  factory,  they  should  be  placed  in 
small,  long  piles  not  to  exceed  four  or  five  bushels 
and  left  for  a  week  or  ten  days.  This  will  give 
them  a  good  airing  and  will  give  the  surplus  water 
in  them  a  chance  to  evaporate,  or,  as  some  farmers 
please  to  call  it,  allow  them  to  sweat.  If  this 
moisture  remains  with  the  potatoes,  it  will  collect 
in  drops  on  the  surface  of  tubers  in  the  middle 
of  a  large  bin  full  and  will  pick  and  foster  rot  germs 
and  destroy  many  bushels  before  the  owner  is 
aware.  Never  dig  potatoes  on  a  damp,  foggy  day 
or  a  day  when  a  soft  drizzling  rain  is  falling.  The 
moisture  will  soak  the  ground,  make  it  stick  tight 
to  the  potatoes  and  not  only  make  the  produce 
unsightly  but  prove  hurtful. 

Barrels  and  Bins  for  Storage. — Barrels  are  no 
doubt  the  most  convenient,  but  as  these  are  not 


FARM    CROPS 


always  to  be  had,  bins  about  4  or  5  feet  wide,  of 
convenient  length,  and  provided  with  a  floor  a  few 
inches  above  the  ground,  will  serve  the  purpose  very 
well.  The  bins  should  not  be  filled  to  exceed  6  feet 
deep.  Have  the  floor  raised  rather  than  on  the 
ground,  to  allow  a  free  circulation  of  cool  air  and  to 
keep  off  possible  moisture  in  the  ground. 

If  kept  in  the  cellar  put  the  seed  potatoes  in 
barrels  and  set  the  barrels  on  sticks  so  as  to  be  free 
from  the  ground  to  allow  cool  air  to  circulate 
around  the  barrels  and  to  prevent  mold  from  col- 
lecting on  the  head  and  thus  making  it  moist.  Use 
tight  barrels  and  shut  out  the  air  all  you  can.  Keep 
as  cool  as  possible,  but,  of  course,  do  not  allow  to 
freeze — the  best  authorities  say  35  degrees  is  the 
best  temperature  for  seed — and  keep  the  tempera- 
ture as  uniform  as  you  can.  Here  is  where  the 
cold  storage  building  comes  in  handy. 

Seed  Potatoes  Out  of  Doors. — At  digging  time 
put  the  potatoes  into  the  cellar  and  leave  them 
there  until  cold  weather  sets  in.  Then  clear  a  place 
on  the  north  side  of  a  barn  or  hedge  and  on  a  cold 
morning,  when  cloudy  and  near  freezing,  bring  out 
the  potatoes.  Pile  them  on  top  of  the  ground,  not 
in  trenches,  but  in  long  narrow  piles,  and  covered 
with  a  thick  layer  of  straw,  beginning  at  the  base 
and  topping  out  with  a  layer  a  forkful  thick.  This 
is  covered  with  a  layer  of  earth  4  inches  thick  and 
then  left  until  heavier  frosts  come,  but  not  hard 
enough  to  injure  the  tubers.  Another  layer  of 
straw  is  now  added  and  another  layer  of  earth  10 
to  12  inches  thick  and  steep  enough  to  shed  water 
well.  Then  sometime  in  February  or  March,  when 
the  earth  begins  to  warm  up,  the  snow  is  cleaned 
off  and  a  thick  covering  of  straw  or  mulching 


POTATOES  191 

placed  over  this,  the  object  being  to  keep  the  frost 
in  as  long  as  possible. 

Controlling  Potato  Pests. — Late  leaf  blight  is  by 
far  the  most  destructive,  persistent  and  trouble- 
some disease  that  affects  potatoes.  It  is  caused  by 
a  fungus  which,  under  favorable  conditions,  ap- 
pears as  a  delicate  white  mildew,  hence  the  name 
sometimes  applied,  downy  mildew.  In  some  sea- 
sons it  works  so  rapidly  as  to  completely  destroy 
the  foliage  of  an  entire  crop  within  a  few  days  of 
its  first  appearance.  It  attacks  the  leaves  and  stems 
and  frequently  extends  to  the  tubers,  the  rotting  of 
whici  Allows  quickly  upon  the  decay  of  the  tops. 
The  decay  in  the  tubers  is  not  always  proportionate 
to  the  decay  in  the  vines,  but  the  relation  between 
these  is  usually  close,  hence  the  wisdom  of  promptly 
applying  remedial  and  even  preventive  measures. 
The  treatment  is  the  same  in  kind  as  for  early  blight, 
that  is,  spraying  with  bordeaux.  As  the  beetles 
come  at  the  same  time  as  blight,  a  properly  prepared 
spray  will  answer  for  both. 

Little  good  will  result  from  spraying  after  injury 
from  the  disease  has  become  in  any  considerable 
degree  apparent.  Spraying  should  begin,  there- 
fore, even  before  the  blight  has  appeared  and 
usually  as  soon  as  the  plants  are  6  to  10  inches 
high.  The  number  of  sprayings  will  run  all  the 
way  from  one  to  six  or  seven,  according  to  the 
conditions,  especially  those  that  relate  to  weather. 
Ordinarily  from  three  to  four  careful  sprayings  will 
suffice,  but  not  in  all  instances.  When  but  three 
are  given,  the  first  should  be  deferred  until  there 
is  danger  of  harm  from  the  flea  or  the  Colorado 
beetle.  Ordinarily  from  10  to  15  days  are  allowed 
to  elapse  between  the  sprayings,  but,  in  some  in- 


192  FARM    CROPS 

stances,  a  longer  period  is  allowed.  During  what 
may  be  termed  an  epidemic  of  blight,  it  may  be 
necessary  to  spray  every  seven  days.  Light  appli- 
cations and  frequent  are  more  effective  than  heavy 
applications  and  less  frequent. 

To  prepare  bordeaux,  slake  4  pounds  of  good, 
fresh  quicklime  in  10  gallons  of  water.  Dissolve  5 
pounds  of  copper  sulphate,  that  is,  blue  vitriol, 
sometimes  called  bluestone,  also,  in  10  gallons  of 
water,  preferably  hot,  to  hasten  the  dissolving 
process.  If  the  copper  sulphate  is  suspended  near 
the  top  of  the  water  in  a  sack,  the  results  will  be 
more  satisfactory.  When  the  mixture  is  wanted, 
pour  the  two  solutions  thus  obtained  slowly  into  a 
barrel  containing  30  gallons  of  water,  vigorously 
stirring  during  the  pouring  process.  The  mixture 
will  soon  lose  strength,  hence  the  necessity  for  using 
it  fresh.  If  flea  or  potato  beetles  are  giving  trouble, 
about  I  ounce  of  paris  green  of  good  quality  should 
be  added  to  each  10  gallons  of  the  mixture. 

On  small  areas  compressed  air  sprayers  which 
hold  not  more  than  5  gallons  of  the  mixture  may 
be  used.  For  larger  areas  knapsack  sprayers  will 
answer.  For  still  larger  areas  a  barrel  spray  pump 
mounted  on  a  light  wagon  or  two-wheeled  cart, 
drawn  by  one  horse,  may  be  necessary.  When  in 
use,  one  man  rides,  drives  and  pumps,  and  two  men 
walk  and  spray.  The  pump  has  two  leads  of  hose, 
each  about  15  feet  long,  and  provided  with  double 
nozzles.  Several  rows  are  thus  sprayed  at  one  time. 
For  still  larger  fields,  geared  pumps  operated  by 
horse  power  have  been  found  entirely  practical. 
Two  or  three  hours  should  elapse  after  spraying 
before  rain  falls.  It  is  a  matter  of  prime  importance 
that  the  vines  shall  be  well  covered  with  the 


POULARD   WHEAT  1 93 

solution  before  the  blight  fostering  weather 
arrives. 

POULARD  WHEAT.— A  macaroni  and  paste- 
making  wheat  grown  in  this  country  in  an  experi- 
mental way  only.  In  the  regions  surrounding  the 
Black  and  Mediterranean  seas  the  greater  part  of 
this  kind  of  wheat  is  grown.  Sometimes  it  is  called 
English  wheat,  but  it  is  never  grown  in  that  coun- 
try. It  is  closely  allied  to  the  durum  group.  It 
is  satisfied  with  light  rainfall  and  has  great  ability 
to  withstand  drouth  and  heat.  It  calls  for  a  fairly 
rich  soil. 

PUMPKINS — In  the  old  days,  pumpkins  were  a 
popular  stock  food.  Since  farm  machines  for  plant- 
ing, cultivating  and  harvesting  have  come  into  use, 
pumpkin  growing  in  the  cornfields  has  fallen  into 
disfavor  and  disuse.  If  pumpkins  are  grown  at  all 
now,  they  are  usually  grown  in  a  patch  off  to  them- 
selves. This  custom  has  not  become  universal  by 
any  means,  as  in  many  sections  field  pumpkins  in 
the  cornfield  are  frequently  seen,  especially  of  those 
who  have  profited  through  large  quantities  of 
pumpkins  as  a  fall  feed  for  cattle  and  hogs.  Seed 
is  still  mixed  with  the  seed  corn  and  dropped  in 
the  planter. 

The  objection  to  this  method  lies  in  the  trouble 
in  cultivating  the  field  later.  Pumpkin  growers 
have  in  many  instances  resorted  to  the  old  jobber 
planter  for  putting  in  the  pumpkin  seeds  when  the 
corn  has  become  anywhere  from  4  inches  to  2  feet 
in  height.  If  the  corn  harvesters  are  used,  it 
naturally  follows  that  great  quantities  of  pumpkins 
will  be  destroyed.  When  grown  alone,  a  sandy 
loam  is  best.  This  same  kind  of  preparation  is 
necessary  as  for  corn.  When  planted  alone  it  is 


194  FARM    CROPS 

advisable  to  plant  the  pumpkins  something  like  8 
by  8  feet.  From  3  to  4  pounds  of  seed  will  be 
necessary  to  the  acre.  Of  course,  drilled  planting 
can  be  resorted  to.  If  hill  planting  is  adopted, 
three  or  four  plants  should  be  left  to  the  hill.  Con- 
stant cultivation  pays  in  pumpkin  growing  as  it 
pays  in  corn  and  other  kinds  of  crops.  Freezing  is 
hurtful  to  pumpkins  and,  therefore,  they  should 
be  gathered  and  stored  before  cold  weather  arrives. 
If  the  stems  be  brushed  off  or  the  pumpkins  bruised 
they  will  quickly  decay.  A  dry,  moderately  warm 
pit  or  cellar  is  desirable  for  storage.  A  barn  or 
stable  can  be  used,  but  if  the  weather  is  cold  it  is 
best  to  cover  ,with  corn  stalks  or  hay  in  order  to 
protect  from  cold  weather  as  long  as  possible.  Any- 
where from  20  to  40  tons  of  pumpkins  may  be 
secured  to  the  acre.  There  is  a  place  on  the  farm 
for  pumpkins,  as  they  are  relished  by  both  swine 
and  cattle  in  the  fall.  They  may  be  fed  raw  or 
cooked  and  are  good  for  hogs  up  to  the  final  stages 
of  fattening. 

RAPE. — English  farmers  have  for  generations 
made  extensive  use  of  Dwarf  Essex  forage  rape  as  a 
stock  food.  This  plant  may  be  described  as  a  ruta- 
baga run  to  head.  The  seed  is  sown  broadcast, 
from  April  to  July,  or  sown  in  drills,  like  rutabaga 
turnips,  and  cultivated  without  thinning.  The 
large,  numerous,  succulent  leaves  are  generally  ap- 
preciated by  sheep  most  of  all,  then  by  swine  and 
cattle.  Rape  is  fed  off  by  turning  stock  directly 
into  the  field,  so  there  is  no  expense  for  harvesting. 
As  indicated  above,  it  may  be  sown  any  time  from 
early  spring  until  midsummer,  and  furnishes  food 
from  about  eight  weeks  after  sowing  until  it  is 
consumed. 


RAPE 


195 


Rape  seeds  may  be  sown  at  different  seasons. 
The  time  of  seeding  will  largely  depend  on  the  time 
of  year  the  crop  is  wanted  for  feeding.  It  may  be 
sown  in  early  spring  or  as  late  as  July,  and  good 
results  will  be  obtained  providing  the  season  is 


RAPE  PLANT 

This  plant  stores  the  nutriment  in  Its  leaves  and  is  most 
excellent  for  grazing  purposes,  especially  for  hogs  and  sheep. 
It  may  be  planted  in  the  spring  or  the  fall.  When  at  its  best 
it  is  almost  a  complete  food. 


196  FARM    CROPS 

moist  enough  to  germinate  the  seed.  When  sown 
in  early  spring,  it  will  usually  be  ready  for  pastur- 
ing in  about  eight  weeks.  Some  have  got  very 
large  yields  by  cutting  the  crop  rather  than  pas- 
turing it.  If  you  cut  it,  do  not  cut  too  close  to  the 
ground,  for  if  this  is  done  the  plants  oftentimes  fail 
to  produce  a  second  crop.  If  cut  4  or  5  inches 
above  the  ground  as  many  as  three  crops  a  season 
can  be  had  from  one  seeding.  When  seeded  in  early 
spring  it  may  either  be  sown  in  drills  or  broad- 
cast. Usually  the  best  results  are  obtained  when 
drilled  in  rows  from  2  to  2,^/2  feet  apart,  just  wide 
enough  to  allow  a  cultivator  to  pass  between  the 
rows.  If  cultivated  two  or  three  times  the  weeds 
are  kept  down  and  the  rape  will  make  a  much  more 
rapid  growth.  If  drilled,  about  2  pounds  of  seed 
an  acre  should  be  used,  but  if  broadcasted  use 
double  that  amount.  Never  sow  anything  but  the 
Dwarf  Essex  variety,  as  it  is  the  best.  Sometimes 
farmers  have  been  deceived  in  buying  rape  seed, 
and  got  a  kind  that  did  not  make  much  growth  and 
blossomed  early. 

Rape  will  grow  and  do  very  well  on  a  variety  of 
soils,  but  the  largest  yields  and  most  satisfactory 
results  are  obtained  when  it  is  produced  on  a  rich 
soil  containing  a  liberal  amount  of  vegetable  mat- 
ter. When  sown  alone  and  in  spring  more  rape 
will  be  grown  than  is  possible  by  any  other  method, 
as  oftentimes  three  crops  a  season  can  be  obtained 
by  sut»h  a  practice.  Many  farmers  have  succeeded 
in  getting  two  crops  off  the  same  ground  by  sow- 
ing rape  seed  with  oats  or  in  the  cornfield  at  time 
of  last  cultivation.  Such  a  practice  is  frequently 
followed  by  good  results,  but  if  the  season  be  very 
dry,  the  rape  may  not  make  much  growth.  It  is 


RAPE  197 

well  worth  any  man's  time  to  experiment  a  little 
along  these  lines,  for  in  most  instances  he  will  be 
well  paid  for  his  trouble. 

When  Sown  with  Oats  the  most  common  prac- 
tice is  to  mix  the  rape  seed  in  the  seed  box  with 
oats  and  drill  both  at  the  same  time.  About  1^2 
pounds  of  seed  to  the  acre  should  be  used.  On 
very  rich  soil  it  might  not  be  advisable  to  use  more 
than  I  pound  of  seed  to  the  acre.  The  rape  plant 
will  make  a  fair  growth  until  the  oat  crop  is  har- 
vested, when  it  will  grow  very  rapidly  and  furnish 
an  abundance  of  good  pasture  for  sheep,  hogs  or 
young  cattle.  When  grown  in  the  cornfield  seed 
should  be  sown  just  before  the  last  cultivation. 
Sow  about  2.Y-2.  pounds  of  seed  to  an  acre.  This 
method  is  occasionally  more  satisfactory  than  to 
sow  with  oats,  but  either  method  may  prove  very 
profitable. 

Rape  is  not  like  clover,  cowpeas,  or  soja  beans 
in  being  able  to  obtain  its  nitrogen  from  the  air, 
and  consequently  is  not  so  valuable  as  a  fertilizer. 
The  roots  of  the  rape  plant  go  down  into  the  sub- 
soil and  in  this  way  they  bring  fertility  to  the  sur- 
face soil.  Some  grow  rape  for  this  purpose  alone, 
but  most  people  grow  it  for  its  value  as  a  forage 
crop.  This  plant  is  an  excellent  food  for  sheep, 
swine,  beef  cattle,  and  when  carefully  fed  to  dairy 
cows  good  results  can  be  obtained.  Those  who 
have  never  tried  rape  should  sow  a  little  and  be 
convinced  that  it  is  one  of  the  most  useful  forage 
plants  the  farmers  can  grow. 

RED  CLOVER.— One  of  our  best  forage  plants 
and  used  for  pasture,  hay  and  soil  renovation.  It 
grows  in  all  parts  of  the  country.  Clay  loam  soils 
overlying  a  mild  clay  are  best  for  this  crop.  How- 


198 


FARM    CROPS 


ever,  any  soil  not  too  loose  is  satisfactory.  Clover 
will  grow  on  land  that  is  not  rich,  but  on  poor 
soils  liberal  applications  of  potassium  and  phos- 
phorus should  be  given.  The  crop  is  sown  usually 
with  a  nurse  crop  and  is  most  popular  in  rotations 
with  corn,  wheat  and  oats.  It  precedes  the  corn 
and  is  seeded  in  the  spring  either  in  oat  land  or 
the  wheat  land.  In  localities  abundantly  supplied 

with  moisture  and  fa- 
vored with  mild  win- 
ters it  is  practical  to 
sow  clover  in  the  late 
summer  and  early 
autumn  months. 

The  seed  may  be 
sown  broadcast  by 
hand  or  by  means  of  a 
hand  seeder  or  with  an 
attachment  to  the 
grain  drill.  Sometimes 
it  is  fixed  with  the 
grain  seed  and  sowed 
along  with  it,  but  this 
kind  of  sowing  is  not 
COMMON  RED  CLOVER  to  be  commended. 

The  most  important  member  of  Tli^r^    ic    f^r\    rrr^af    ir 
the  clovers   grown   in   most   sec-  U(J    Sied-L    u " 

tions  of  the  country.     Alfalfa  in  recnilaritv    in    the    ^ppH- 

the  West  and  the  cowpea  in  the  reguiari<T    1 

South  somewhat  displace  it.   NO   ingf.     A  better  stand  is 

farm   is   complete   without  some  .  .  r 

legume.  Every  rotation  should  Usually  obtained  II  the 
contain  one  or  more  of  the  -,  •  1-1,1 

clovers.  seed     is    slightly    cov- 

ered. This  usually  oc- 
curs when  the  seed  drops  in  the  drill  rows,  since 
the  first  rain  brings  the  soil  sufficiently  over  the 
seed,  securing  the  necessary  protection  for  it.  When 
seeded  in  spring  wheat,  the  best  time  is  after  a 


RED  CLOVER  IQQ 

frost  when  the  soil  is  in  a  honeycomb  condition. 
The  seed  drops  in  the  cracks  and  the  heaving  and 
thawing  cover  sufficiently  to  insure  germination 
and  foothold  for  the  roots.  From  5  to  10  pounds 
of  seed  are  usually  sown  to  the  acre;  the  latter 
quantity  being  preferable. 

It  is  not  best  to  pasture  off  the  clover  the  same 
year  it  is  sown.  The  exception  to  this  is  when 
wheat  stubble  is  pastured  by  hogs.  Of  course,  the 
clover  has,  as  a  rule,  reached  a  good  height  by  the 
time  the  wheat  fields  are  available  for  pastures,  and 
hogs  do  not  give  an  extremely  close  cropping  at 
this  time,  so  this  method  is  not  to  be  condemned. 
Indeed  farmers  who  grow  wheat,  hogs  and  clover 
resort  to  the  plan  and  so  universally  is  it  practiced 
it  is  only  during  exceptional  seasons  and  under  ex- 
ceptional circumstances  that  injury  is  done  to  the 
crop.  In  any  case  the  crop  should  not  be  close 
cropped  in  the  fall.  If  clover  goes  into  winter  un- 
protected, it  is  more  liable  to  be  injured. 

Clover  may  be  included  in  any  and  all  grass 
seeding.  It  does  not  remain  in  permanent  pas- 
tures, because  it  is  a  short-lived  plant.  Its  quick- 
growing  habit  during  the  first  year  blends  well 
with  the  slower  growing  habit  of  timothy  and  other 
grasses.  By  the  second  year  the  clover  disappears 
and  then  timothy,  red  top  or  other  grasses  included 
in  the  mixture  are  ready  to  start  at  their  best.  As 
the  clover  dies  the  nitrogen  stored  in  its  roots  be- 
comes available  for  the  other  grass  plants  and  the 
decaying  roots  themselves  leave  a  wealth  of  humus 
and  plant  food  in  the  soil  that  will  be  seen  during 
subsequent  years,  even  long  after  the  pasture  has 
been  succeeded  by  another  crop. 

Growing  Clover  for  Seed. — A  much  larger  yield 


2OO  FARM    CROPS 

of  clover  seed  may  be  obtained,  and  seed  of  better 
quality,  if  the  first  crop  of  red  clover  is  cut  early, 
as  it  will  do  for  hay.  This  would  be  when  one- 
third  is  in  full  bloom.  The  mistake  is  often  made 
of  commencing  at  that  stage  of  growth  and  con- 
tinuing over  some  weeks,  so  that  most  of  the 
cutting  is  much  too  late.  The  second  growth  will 
come  strong  from  the  large  root  system  and  will 
bloom  when  bumblebees  are  most  plentiful.  When 
ready  to  cut  for  either  hay  or  seed,  the  mower  will 
clip  off  the  heads  with  a  foot  or  two  of  straw.  This 
makes  good  hay,  leaving  the  coarse  stalk  on  the 
ground.  Or  it  is  easily  threshed,  since  there  is  no 
more  straw  than  the  common  red  clover  has. 

Before  cutting  the  seed  one  should  examine  the 
heads  to  see  if  they  are  well  filled.  Hold 
a  head  between  thumb  and  finger  and  shave 
off  one  side  till  seeds  are  exposed.  It  is 
easy  to  count  the  empty  cups.  In  pinching 
heads,  one  will  find  those  well  filled  are  hard  and 
firm,  empty  heads  chaffy.  It  is  well  to  examine, 
since  there  is  great  variation. 

In  cutting  the  red  clover  for  seed  use  a  buncher. 
But  the  large  clover  with  its  long,  bent-down  stub- 
ble will  not  pull  the  clover  off  the  buncher.  In  this 
case  cut  it  dewy  mornings  and  rake  it  into  windrows 
while  slightly  damp.  If  heavy  rains  fall  on  the 
cut  clover  it  may  need  turning.  This  do  with  a 
four  or  six-pronged  fork  without  parting  it  more 
than  necessary.  Turn  a  bunch  much  as  you  would 
a  pancake.  If  the  rain  is  not  heavy  it  will  usually 
dry  out  without  turning. 

Thresh  in  the  field,  hauling  to  machine  on  tight- 
bottomed  hay  ladders.  The  nicest  way  is  to  have 
these  on  sleds  instead  of  wagons.  Do  not  tramp 


RED  CLOVER  2OI 

it  on  the  load,  but  leave  it  fluffy  and  open.  Great 
care  should  be  taken  that  the  straw  is  dry.  Just  a 
little  toughness  will  waste  seed  surprisingly.  It 
should  hull  out  by  rubbing  in  the  hand  and  the 
chaff  crush  dry.  If  a  little  tough,  one  may  waste 
much  seed.  The  best  time  is  when  a  slight  wind  is 
in  the  south  and  a  bright  sun  is  shining. 

Second  Growth  Clover. — Fall  treatment  of  a 
clover  field  is  very  often  neglected.  The  second 
crop  may  be  cut  for  hay,  grown  for  seed  or  pas- 
tured. There  is  no  reason  why  a  profitable  second 
crop  cannot  be  secured,  but  the  use  to  be  made  of 
this  is  a  question  with  many  growers  and  a  matter 
of  more  or  less  dispute. 

If  intended  for  seed,  the  first  crop  should  be  cut 
early  when  it  is  just  beginning  to  bloom.  When 
this  is  done  the  second  crop  will  have  more  vigor 
and  produce  more  seed.  It  is  always  best  to  cut 
before  full  bloom  has  been  reached,  because  then 
it  contains  the  largest  per  cent  of  protein,  has  less 
crude  fiber  and  is  more  valuable  for  feed.  The 
Maine  experiment  station  reports  that  when  heads 
are  first  forming,  clover  has  23  per  cent  of  protein; 
heads  formed,  18  per  cent;  full  bloom,  14  per  cent; 
some  heads  dead,  13  per  cent,  and  all  heads  dead, 
12  per  cent.  So  when  cut  early  the  second  growth 
is  not  only  better,  but  the  feeding  value  is  greater. 

For  seed,  the  second  crop  should  grow  until  the 
first  heads  are  ripe  and  begin  to  shell.  If  the  later 
heads  contain  the  most  and  largest  seed,  they  should 
be  ripened  in  preference.  It  should  be  cured  in 
small  cocks  and  these  turned  over  when  dry  on  top. 
The  seed  may  be  threshed  out  with  a  flail  and 
fanned,  or  the  heads  themselves  sown  for  home 
use.  As  insects  are  very  troublesome,  it  is  seldom 


2O2  FARM    CROPS 

profitable  to  try  to  mature  the  see^.  If  seed  is  to 
be  grown,  however,  the  mammoth  variety  should 
be  selected,  as  this  is  a  later  and  hardier  variety 
than  the  medium  red.  Only  one  crop  of  the  mam- 
moth can  be  grown  in  a  season,  and  if  seed  is 
sought,  it  should  be  pastured  or  mowed  early  in 
the  season  to  delay  its  maturity  until  later  in  the 
summer,  when  it  will  have  a  larger  yield. 

If  it  can  be  avoided,  it  is  not  advisable  to  pasture 
the  clover  field,  although  it  makes  excellent  feed. 
The  tramping  of  the  stock  has  a  tendency  to  make 
the  soil  more  compact  and  heavy.  When  it  is  pas- 
tured, the  roots  do  not  penetrate  the  soil  so  deeply, 
and  consequently  is  not  quite  beneficial  as  a  soil 
improver.  Everything  being  considered,  it  is  about 
as  well  to  let  the  second  crop  go  back  to  the  soil 
if  it  is  not  harvested  for  hay,  when  it  can  go  back 
in  the  form  of  barnyard  manure. 

In  the  fall,  before  the  weeds  have  gone  to  seed, 
it  should  be  cut  with  a  mowing  machine,  not  very 
close  to  the  ground,  however.  This  serves  as  a 
mulch  to  protect  the  soil  through  the  winter,  and  at 
the  same  time  adds  rich  humus.  The  growth  the 
following  year  will  be  greater  and  probably  enough 
to  offset  the  loss  from  its  going  back  to  the  soil. 

RED  TOP. — An  upright  perennial  frequently 
mixed  with  timothy  and  other  grasses  for  hay.  In 
New  England,  New  York  and  Pennsylvania  red  top 
is  an  old  standby.  In  the  South  and  West  it  is  not 
so  well  known.  In  some  instances  red  top  is  used 
as  the  only  grass  in  the  crop.  Some  markets 
consider  red  top  a  weed  and  the  hay  suffers 
accordingly  so  far  as  price  goes.  Red  top  is 
more  nutritious  than  timothy,  and  any  prejudice 
against  it  is  unwarranted.  The  crop  does  splen- 


RED   TOP 


203 


didly  in  low,  moist  and  swampy  lands,  and  is 
good  for  either  meadows  or  pastures.  It  may  be 
flooded  even  for  some  time  without  suffering  to  any 
extent.  It  seems  to  do  fairly  well  on  acid  soils; 
indeed,  some  say  it  does  its  best  on  sour  lands.  It 
is  no  better  adapted  for  short  rotations  than  timothy, 
as  it  requires  at  least  two 
years  to  get  a  firm  foothold. 
Its  creepy  nature  in  growing 
makes  it  good  for  bottom 
lands.  The  quantity  of  seed 
will  depend  upon  how  clean 
the  seed  is  in  the  first  place. 
A  pound  or  two  of  thor- 
oughly cleaned  seed  is  all 
that  is  required.  With  un- 
cleaned  seed,  or  as  ordinarily 
used,  from  15  to  20  pounds 
will  be  necessary  to  the  acre. 
It  goes  very  well  with 
timothy,  orchard  grass  and 

'  T  A  perennial  grass.       It 

any       of       the       clovers.  ItS  grows    2    to    3   feet  high, 

•    if                        .    .,        .  with      interlacing     roots 

special   favor   to  alsike    IS  ex-  that  form  a  dense  sod.     It 


T^loit^rl       K^r      +Tm      for-f      fTiof    stands  tramping  about  as 

plained     by     trie     tact     mat   well  as  any  grass,    in 

alcilr^      ixn'11      rrrr^xr      in      clirrlif  1tr      Some     places     it     IS     more 

alsike   will    grow    in    slightly    popula£  than  timothy, 
acid     soils     where     common 

clover  will  not.  Seeding  can  be  done  either  in  the 
fall  or  spring.  A  small  amount  of  red  top  with 
the  usual  grass  mixture  will  not  be  amiss  for  most 
meadow  and  pasture  lands. 

RESCUE  GRASS.— This  grass,  sometimes 
known  as  Australian  Brome,  grows  from  I  to  2 
feet  high  and  resembles  chess  or  cheat  in  appear- 
ance. It  is  an  annual  and  reseeds  itself.  In  the 
South  it  is  used  as  a  winter  grazing  grass.  The 


204  FARM    CROPS 

custom  is  to  let  it  reseed  itself  each  spring.  If  this 
is  not  done  it  soon  runs  out.  When  cut  for  hay, 
from  i  to  2  tons  an  acre  are  produced. 

RICE. — A  grass  plant  grown  principally  for 
human  food.  The  crop  is  most  largely  grown  in 
Louisiana  and  Texas,  but  the  Carolinas  and  Georgia 
have  at  different  times  grown  considerable  quanti- 
ties of  this  crop.  The  three  main  varieties  culti- 
vated in  this  country  are  the  Japan,  the  Honduras 
and  the  Carolina.  The  Japan  varieties  have  short 
oval  berries,  but  the  plants  differ  in  habits  of 
growth,  days  of  maturity,  and  other  physical  fea- 
tures. The  Honduras  rice  is  large  in  size,  has  a 
rich  kernel  and  yields  heavily.  The  same  may  be 
said  of  the  Carolina  varieties.  The  Japan  varieties 
lead  in  milling  qualities.  Red  rice  differs  from  the 
varieties  just  named.  The  grains  are  red  or 
streaked  with  red.  It  is  a  very  hardy  variety  and 
noted  for  its  vigor.  On  account  of  the  demand  for 
white  rice,  this  kind  is  not  in  favor  in  this  country, 
although  in  other  countries  it  is  much  used.  Wild 
rice  is  a  wild  plant  here  and  is  not  cultivated.  It 
is  found  in  places  where  shallow  water  abounds. 
Its  use  as  a  feed  is  very  limited.  It  grows  in  the 
low  alluvial  lands  along  the  rivers  in  Louisiana  and 
Texas  and  in  the  bordering  reclaimed  swamps  and 
tight  water  lands,  including  all  the  territory  most 
given  to  rice. 

The  soil  for  rice  must  be  rich — a  thick  loam  is 
preferred.  Previous  to  planting  time,  the  most 
thorough  kind  of  preparation  is  necessary.  The 
soil  must  be  firm  and  compact  and  possessed  of 
much  water.  The  clay  types  are  very  good,  if  not 
the  best.  Good  drainage  is  desirable  because  this 
permits  of  early  planting  and  a  good  soil  prepara- 


RICE  205 

tion.  The  planting  season  runs  from  the  middle  of 
March  to  the  middle  of  June.  From  2  to  3  bushels 
are  usually  seeded  to  the  acre.  The  rice  seeder  is 
often  used,  but  most  generally  the  seed  is  scat- 
tered broadcast.  It  is  then  harrowed  so  as  to  give 
it  a  reasonable  amount  of  covering. 

After  planting,  water  is  turned  on  the  land  so 
as  to  give  it  a  thorough  soaking  and  then  with- 
drawn until  germination  has  resulted.  During 
rainy  seasons  and  in  moist  lands,  an  application 
of  water  is  not  necessary.  When  the  rice  attains 
a  height  of  6  or  8  inches,  the  water  is  turned  on. 
As  the  rice  plants  grow,  the  depth  of  water  is  in- 
creased. This  keeps  the  weeds  down  and  is  just 
what  the  rice  plant  likes.  The  water  is  withdrawn 
sometimes  previous  to  harvesting,  to  allow  the  soil 
to  become  thoroughly  dry  that  the  harvesting  ma- 
chines may  be  drawn  easily  over  the  land.  When 
the  straw  begins  to  turn  yellow,  it  is  ready  for 
cutting.  If  machinery  cannot  be  used,  the  sickle 
is  used.  After  being  cut  the  rice  is  bound  into 
sheaves  and  laid  on  the  stubbles  to  dry.  It  is  later 
shocked  as  in  the  case  of  wheat.  The  next  opera- 
tion is  threshing,  which  is  usually  by  machine  just 
as  with  other  cereals.  The  yield  varies  from  20  to 
40  bushels  to  the  acre. 

On  the  whole,  appliances  are  becoming  more  and 
more  available  so  that  farm  hulling  now  has  be- 
come a  sort  of  established  rule.  The  rice  mills  are 
complicated  affairs.  Not  only  must  the  grain  be 
taken  from  the  straw,  but  the  light  grains  must  be 
separated  from  the  heavy;  the  weeds  must  be  re- 
moved, the  hulls  separated,  and  the  grain  must  be 
polished  and  graded  and  placed  in  sacks  ready  for 
shipment  to  market.  Rice  is  usually  graded  as 


RICE  2O7 

whole  rice  or  heads ;  scant  heads  or  straits ;  broken 
rice  or  screenings;  and  brewer's  rice.  This  last  is 
used  in  manufacturing  beer. 

The  most  serious  obstacle  to  rice  growing  are 
weeds.  Wild  rice  and  red  rice  are  both  weeds  in 
the  regular  rice  field.  If  these  get  into  the  cul- 
tivated varieties  they  reduce  the  value  of  the  crop. 
To  avoid  this  trouble,  it  is  necessary  that  only 
clean  seed,  positively  free  from  red  rice,  be  used. 
The  rice  grain  after  leaving  the  mill  is  graded,  the 
better  grains  being  used  for  human  consumption. 
A  by-product  from  the  preparation  of  rice  is  known 
as  rice  meal  and  has  considerable  value  as  a  stock 
feed.  The  rice  hulls  have  little  feeding  value.  In 
the  past,  they  have  been  very  greatly  used  as  an 
adulterant  in  many  kinds  of  cattle  feeds.  Adding 
rice  hulls  to  these  feeds  now  is  a  fraud  and  in  most 
states  is  not  permitted.  Rice  straw  is  used  sim- 
ilarly with  wheat  straw. 

RUTABAGAS.— As  a  winter  food  for  live  stock 
rutabagas  have  a  wide  range  of  adaptation.  Like 
rape,  this  plant  is  found  at  its  best  where  the 
weather  is  moist  and  cool.  The  crop  should  al- 
ways be  made  a  cleaning  crop,  save  when  the  seed 
is  sown  broadcast.  It  may,  therefore,  with  much 
propriety  come  after  a  succession  of  grain  crops 
when  the  land  has  become  weedy  through  thus 
growing  these  crops  upon  it,  as  it  assuredly  will  be- 
come in  time.  Turnips  will  grow  nicely  in  overturned 
sod  lands  when  the  sod  is  not  too  fresh  and  dense, 
but  such  lands  are  usually  wanted  for  cereals  be- 
cause of  their  clean  condition.  A  grain  crop  should 
follow  the  rutabaga  crop,  and  because  of  the  clean 
condition  of  the  land,  it  would  be  well  to  sow  grass 
seeds  or  clover  seeds,  or  both,  with  the  grain. 


2O8  FARM    CROPS 

Rutabagas  are  partial  to  a  deep,  moist  loam  soil, 
with  enough  of  sand  in  it  to  keep  it  friable.  The 
seed  may  be  sown  with  a  hand  drill  such  as  is  used 
in  a  garden  when  only  a  small  quantity  is  to  be 
sown,  but  when  a  large  area  is  to  be  sown,  a  drill 
made  for  the  purpose  of  sowing  field  seeds  is  com- 
monly used.  It  is  drawn  with  one  horse,  sows 
two  rows  of  seed  at  a  time,  and  a  roller 
attached  firms  the  earth  over  the  seed.  But 
when  the  weather  is  dry  and  the  soil  is  not  liable 
to  blow,  it  will  be  advantageous  to  use  the  heavy 
field  roller  after  the  seed  has  been  sown.  From  2 
to  4  pounds  of  seed  are  sown  to  the  acre,  accord- 
ing to  the  more  or  less  favorable  conditions  of  the 
soil  and  weather. 

When  sown  in  drills,  the  horse  cultivation  should 
begin  as  soon  as  the  young  plants  can  be  distinctly 
traced  in  the  line  of  the  row.  The  cultivation  ought 
to  be  deeper  at  first  than  later,  and  close  to  the 
rows,  but  not  so  close  as  to  disturb  the  young 
plants.  If,  at  the  same  time,  the  undisturbed  por- 
tion of  the  soil  is  disturbed  with  the  hoe,  but  with- 
out cutting  out  any  of  the  plants,  the  weeds  can 
never  again  become  so  troublesome  along  the  line 
of  the  row.  The  cultivation  given  should  be  fre- 
quent and  it  ought  to  be  continued  as  long  as  it 
can  be  done  without  breaking  off  any  considerable 
proportion  of  the  leaves  of  the  rutabagas. 

When  the  plants  have  produced  four  or  five 
leaves,  or  when  they  are  3  or  4  inches  high,  the 
thinning  should  be  done  and  with  much  dispatch. 
The  workman  stands  facing  the  row,  and  with  a 
forward  and  backward  movement  of  the  hoe  strikes 
out  the  plants  that  are  to  be  removed.  The  dis- 
tance between  the  plants  may  be  varied  from  6  to 


RYE  2O9 

12  inches,  but  it  is  not  common  to  thin  the  plants 
to  a  greater  distance  than,  say,  9  to  10  inches;  and 
they  should  be  gone  over  a  second  time  with  the 
hand  hoe,  to  perfect  the  thinning  and  also  the  de- 
struction of  the  weeds.  When  rutabagas  are  broad- 
casted they  are  not  given  any  cultivation. 

RYE. — Rye  will  grow  much  better  on  rich  land 
than  on  land  that  is  poor.  Nevertheless,  it  is  grown 
chiefly  on  land  that  is  sandy  in  texture  and  that  is 
low  in  fertility.  It  is  so  grown  because  other 
cereals  cannot  be  grown  with  equal  success  on  such 
soils;  but  there  are  wide  areas  in  many  states  well 
adapted  to  its  growth  and  on  these  it  is  not  grown. 
The  habit  of  growth  in  rye  enables  it  to  gather  food 
in  soils  where  other  cereals  would  fail. 

The  ground  is  prepared  for  rye  as  for  other  crops, 
that  is,  by  plowing  it  to  a  reasonable  depth.  It  is 
not  necessary  to  plow  so  deeply  as  for  some  other 
crops,  especially  on  sandy  soils.  Of  course,  the 
longer  the  ground  is  plowed  before  the  land  is 
sown,  and  the  more  frequently  the  soil  is 
stirred  the  better  will  be  the  conditions  for 
the  rye,  as  the  ground  will  then  be  cleaner  and 
moister  than  it  would  otherwise  be.  In  certain 
areas,  however,  especially  of  the  prairie,  rye  is  put 
in  with  the  grain  drill  without  plowing  the  land 
at  all.  The  seed  is  drilled  in  among  the  stubbles 
and  on  such  soils  good  crops  are  frequently  grown. 
This  method  of  sowing  is  best  adapted  to  cold 
areas.  The  benefit  comes  largely  from  the  protec- 
tion which  the  stubbles  afford  to  the  young  rye 
plants  when  driving  winds  are  sweeping  over  the 
country  in  winter. 

Rye  is  put  into  the  soil  like  other  cereals,  being 
sown  sometimes  by  hand,  but  more  frequently  and 


2IO  FARM    CROPS 

more  properly  with  the  drill.  It  may  be  put  in  under 
dry  conditions  more  deeply  than  wheat,  as  the 
young1  sprouts  of  rye  can  better  endure  conditions 
of  privation  than  wheat.  The  amount  of  seed  sown 
is  usually  from  6  to  8  pecks;  more  on  poor  than 
on  rich  soil.  It  should  be  sown  even  more  thickly 
than  other  grain,  as  it  has  less  power  to  stool. 

Varieties. — There  ire  two  varieties  of  rye.  One 
of  these  is  known  as  winter  and  the  other  as  spring 
rye.  The  winter  variety  chiefly  is  grown.  The 
spring  variety  does  not  usually  yield  so  well  as  the 
other.  The  best  time  for  sowing  winter  rye  can 
only  be  stated  in  a  general  way,  as  the  time  will 
vary  with  the  locality.  It  ought  to  be  sown  so 
early  that  it  will  make  enough  of  top  to  protect 
itself  in  winter  and  yet  not  early  enough  to  be 
injured  with  the  leaf  rust  that  sometimes  over- 
takes early  sown  rye.  In  the  Northern  states,  the 
best  time  to  sow  winter  rye  is  usually  from  the 
first  to  the  middle  of  September.  Going  south- 
ward, the  time  of  sowing  will  be  later. 

Spring  rye  cannot  be  sown  too  early  providing 
the  land  is  in  proper  condition  to  receive  the  seed. 
If  winter  rye  is  sown  so  late  that  the  plants  do  not 
have  time  to  make  a  reasonable  growth  before 
winter,  in  cold  climates,  the  crop  may  be  greatly 
injured,  but  where  the  snowfall  is  reasonably  sure, 
late  sowing  will  be  more  safe. 

The  rye  crop  is  harvested  like  any  other  cereal. 
At  the  present  time  it  is  usually  cut  with  the  grain 
harvester.  Owing  to  the  stiff  character  of  the 
straw  it  has  the  great  advantage  over  other  cereals 
that  it  seldom  falls  down.  It  is  also  ripe  one  or  two 
weeks  ahead  of  winter  wheat,  and,  therefore,  the 
harvesting  does  not  interfere  with  the  harvesting 


RYE  211 

of  other  cereals.  Moreover,  when  grass  or  clover 
seeds  are  sown  along  with  the  rye,  its  early  re- 
moval lets  in  the  sunlight  and  is  so  far  favorable 
to  their  growth.  If  the  rye  cannot  be  harvested  at 
once  when  ripe,  the  loss  from  shelling  is  much  less 
than  with  other  cereals.  The  yields  are  usually 
moderate,  as  the  crop  is  commonly  sown  on  the 
poorest  soil  of  the  farm.  They  run,  in  many  in- 
stances, about  15  to  18  bushels,  though  under  favor- 
able condition,  more  than  30  bushels  per  acre  ma}' 
be  grown. 

Rye  weighs  56  pounds  per  bushel,  and,  therefore, 
is  nearly  as  heavy  as  wheat.  It  is  a  valuable  food 
for  horses,  milch  cows,  cattle  that  are  being  fat- 
tened, swine  and  sheep,  when  it  is  properly  fed,  but 
there  is  prejudice  in  the  minds  of  many  against 
feeding  it,  because  of  some  evils  that  have  resulted 
therefrom.  It  is  true  that  ergot  is  found  in  rye 
occasionally,  and  when  it  is  thus  present  in  any 
considerable  quantity  it  is  also  true  that  when  fed 
heavily  it  will  produce  abortion  in  pregnant  animals. 
The  proper  way  to  feed  it  when  possible  is  to  feed 
a  small  quantity  and  in  combination  with  other 
feeding  stuffs. 

Winter  Rye  for  Pasture.— None  of  the  small 
cereals  will  compare  with  rye  in  providing  pasture. 
Its  strong  points  here  include  the  following:  It 
may  be  sown  almost  at  any  season  of  the  year; 
good  pasture  may  be  obtained  from  the  one  sow- 
ing; a  stand  of  grass  may  be  obtained  while  it  is 
being  grazed,  and  it  may  usually  be  followed  by 
another  crop  the  same  season. 

If  rye  is  to  furnish  good  pasture  in  the  autumn 


212  FARM    CROPS 

it  must  be  sown  early;  in  the  Northern  states  as 
early  as  August.  It  must  then  be  grazed  some- 
what closely,  for  if  allowed  to  grow  too  rank  the 
head  may  form,  which  would  destroy  its  power  to 
grow  in  the  spring.  But  a  more  important  reason 
for  grazing  it  closely  is  found  in  the  tendency  in 
the  grazing  to  rust  when  it  becomes  of  rank  growth. 
While  the  weather  is  still  warm  cropping  it  down 
prevents  it  from  rusting.  It  may  thus  be  made  to 
produce  a  large  amount  of  grazing  in  the  autumn, 
but  when  it  does,  the  grazing  furnished  in  the 
spring  is  less  than  that  obtained  from  rye  under 
similar  conditions  of  growth,  but  sown  later  and 
not  pastured.  In  the  spring  grazing  is  furnished 
earlier  by  rye  than  by  any  other  plants  used  as 
pasture.  The  duration  of  the  grazing  depends 
somewhat  upon  the  closeness  of  the  cropping,  but 
usually  it  does  not  continue  good  more  than  five 
to  six  weeks.  By  that  time,  however,  other  graz- 
ing is  abundant  as  a  rule. 

Securing  a  Stand  of  Grass. — If  rye  is  sown  in  the 
autumn  and  timothy  or  red  top,  or  both,  are  sown 
along  with  it,  these  plants  will  root  in  the  autumn 
and  will  not  only  be  ready  to  furnish  grazing  along 
with  the  rye  in  the  spring,  but  they  will  continue 
to  grow  and  furnish  grazing  indefinitely.  Another 
way  is  to  defer  sowing  the  seeds  to  the  early  spring, 
and  then  to  sow  such  clovers  and  grasses  as  flourish 
in  the  locality  and  cover  them  with  the  harrow. 
Under  proper  conditions  the  harrowing  will  help 
the  rye.  There  may  be  soils  on  which  the  early 
grazing  of  the  rye  would  injure  the  growth  of  the 
grasses.  On  other  soils,  however,  such  grazing  will 
be  helpful  to  them,  rather  than  harmful.  Where 
this  method  succeeds  it  enables  the  farmer  to  get 


RYE  213 

pasture  quickly  when  this  may  be  necessary. 
When  rye  is  sown  in  the  autumn  for  pasture,  it 
is  usually  sown  after  some  other  crop  has  been 
grown  for  the  season  on  the  same  land.  Thus,  it 
may  come  after  any  of  the  other  cereals.  When 
grazed  down  in  the  spring  there  is  still  time  to 
follow  it  with  other  crops.  These  include  field 
roots,  rape,  millet  and  cowpeas.  Excellent  crops 
of  these  are  frequently  grown  after  rye  pastures. 

All  kinds  of  quadrupeds  kept  on  the  farm  may 
be  grazed  on  rye.  Its  highest  use  probably  is  found 
in  grazing  ewes  in  the  early  spring  that  are  nurs- 
ing their  lambs,  or  in  grazing  weaned  lambs  in  the 
autumn  in  the  absence  of  better  grazing.  Under 
some  conditions  it  is  a  great  aid  in  furnishing  pas- 
ture to  swine.  However,  it  must  be  pastured  with 
caution  by  dairy  cows,  or  an  unpleasant  odor  may 
be  given  to  the  milk.  Early  succulent  rye  is  excel- 
lent for  the  production  of  milk.  Such  grazing  is  not 
much  used  in  growing  beef  as  it  is  usually  too 
limited  in  supply. 

RYE  GRASS.— See  Italian  Rye  Grass. 

SANFOIN. — A  vigorous  growing  plant,  both 
branched  and  spreading.  Its  flowers  are  numer- 
ous and  of  a  showy  red  color.  It  will  frequently 
produce  two  or  more  cuttings  of  hay  and  several 
cuttings  of  soiling  feed  in  a  single  season.  It  is 
seldom  advisable  to  seek  two  crops  of  seed  in  one 
season,  since  the  first  crop  does  not  yield  nearly  so 
well  as  the  second.  It  is  better  practice  to  cut  the 
first  crop  for  hay,  to  use  it  as  soiling  food,  or  to  pas- 
ture it,  just  as  is  done  in  growing  common  red  clover 
seed.  This  plant  will  retain  its  hold  upon  the  soil  for 
several  years.  But  other  grasses  are  much  prone 


214  FARM    CROPS 

to  crowd  it  out  as  it  becomes  older.  In  some  in- 
stances it  is  only  grown  for  one  or  two  seasons,  but 
usually  the  seed  is  too  costly  to  admit  of  any  ex- 
tended use. 

In  the  rough  form  from  4  to  5  bushels  of  seed  to 
the  acre  must  be  used.  When  harvesting  the  seed 
great  care  must  be  exercised  in  handling  the  crop, 
or  much  of  the  seed  will  be  lost.  It  should  not  be 
handled  in  the  heat  of  the  day;  and  when  being 
made  into  hay  the  same  care  is  necessary,  or  many 
of  the  leaves  will  be  lost.  Much  care  must  also  be 
given  the  seed,  or  it  will  heat  and  spoil.  Inatten- 
tion in  this  matter  is  largely  responsible  for  the 
many  failures  to  secure  a  good  stand  of  plants. 
But  it  also  seems  to  be  true  that  the  seed  loses  its 
germinating  power  more  quickly  than  the  seed  of 
any  other  legume.  Sanfoin,  like  clover,  is  very 
beneficial  to  the  soils  in  which  it  is  grown. 

SCARLET  CLOVER.— See  Crimson  Clover. 

SHEEP'S  FESCUE.— A  perennial  bunch  grass 
much  relished  as  herbage  by  sheep.  It  grows  on 
thin  soils  and  never  becomes  very  tall.  About  10 
inches  is  its  usual  height,  though  when  specially 
favored  it  may  grow  twice  as  tall.  It  is  particu- 
larly suited  for  culture  on  the  lighter,  drier  soils 
of  a  sandy  nature  where  other  grasses  will  not 
thrive.  From  2  to  3  bushels  of  seed  are  required 
to  the  acre.  Its  light  nature  and  slight  growth  put 
it  out  of  the  hay  classes.  Its  chief  value  is  as  pas- 
ture in  the  drier  regions  where  the  soils  are  poor 
and  the  moisture  too  little  to  make  an  abundant 
growth. 

SORGHUM. — A  plant  somewhat  resembling 
Indian  corn  in  habit  of  growth  and  appearance.  It 


SORGHUM 


215 


is  used  in  the  production  of  molasses  and  sugar 
and  as  a  forage  plant.  Some  varieties  of  sorghum 
contain  more  sugar  properties  than  others.  They 
fall  into  two  classes — the  saccharine  and  the  non- 
saccharine  varieties.  This  plant  will  grow  any- 
where that  Indian  corn  will  grow  and  will  do  very 
well  on  poor  soils  and  in  the  drouth  regions.  While 
it  is  used  to  some  extent  in  making  syrup,  difficulty 
has  up  to  the  present  been  experienced  in  getting 
profitable  amounts  of  crystallized  sugar  from  it. 
When  grown  for  its  molasses  properties,  good  soils 
are  practically  indispensable.  Either  hills  or  drills 
may  be  used.  The 
rows  should  be  3^2 
to  4  feet  apart,  and  if 
planted  in  hills,  a 
similar  distance  in  the 
row.  The  custom  is 
to  plant  from  I  to  2 
dozen  seeds  in  each 
hill  and  to  cover  these 
about  2  inches  deep. 

If  the  soil  is  light 
and  dry  a  little 
greater  depth  is  given. 
As  the  plants  come  up 
they  are  thinned  to 


SHEEP'S  FESCUE 


This   bunch    grass   is   especially 
six    or   eight    Stalks    in    suited  for  the  lighter,   drier  soils 
,  ..«     0TT  t      and  those  of  a  sandy  nature  where 

the  hill.      Heavy  seed-    other   grasses   will   not  thrive.     It 
,.       i  is   greatly  relished  by  sheep,   and 

ing  IS   practiced   SO  as    to  a  less  extent  by  other  stock. 

to  overcome  the  tend- 
ency to  loss  from  rotting  or  poor  germination  that 
the  seed  seems  to  possess.     The  ground  should  be 
pretty   warm    before    seeding,    and    it    is    best    not 
to    plant    until    after    the    regular    corn-planting 


2l6  FARM    CROPS 

time  is  over.  It  is  absolutely  necessary  to  keep 
all  the  weeds  out  of  the  corn,  otherwise  the 
young  shoots  will  be  quickly  smothered  by  the 
quicker,  ranker,  more  virile  weeds.  Similar  cul- 
tivation should  be  given  sorghum  as  given  to 
Indian  corn.  Shallow  culture  is  to  be  com- 
mended. Sorghum  for  molasses  is  stripped  of  its 
leaves  before  maturity  and  the  heads  are  cut  off 
by  hand.  The  stalks  are  then  tied  in  bundles  6  or 
8  inches  in  diameter  and  either  taken  to  the  mill  or 
stored  until  convenient  to  do  this.  Cold  weather 
is  injurious  to  the  cane  and  for  that  reason  it  should 
be  got  out  of  the  way  before  frost  comes  on. 

Sorghum  for  Forage. — For  forage  purposes  the 
sorghum  plant  grows  in  popularity  and  its  dominion 
is  gradually  being  extended.  In  the  drier  portions 
of  the  country  a  small  acreage  is  usually  given  to 
it  on  many  farms.  It  is  sown  broadcast,  I  to  2 
bushels  of  seed  being  used  to  the  acre.  The  seed 
may  be  harrowed  or  disked  into  the  soil.  Cowpeas 
are  frequently  put  in  the  mixture,  from  J/2  to  I 
bushel  of  seed  being  used.  A  better  balanced 
ration  is  secured  in  this  \vay.  Sorghum  helps  to 
hold  up  the  cowpeas  and  a  very  heavy  mowing  is 
obtained.  Sorghum  draws  from  the  soil  great  quan- 
tities of  water.  When  grown  one  year  the  succeed- 
ing year  the  soil  often  shows  less  growth  in  what- 
ever crop  is  grown  than  similar  lands  show.  This 
indicates  that  "the  sorghum  plant  has  great  ability 
to  get  the  small  pickings  out  of  the  land. 

It  is  not  advisable,  therefore,  to  follow  sorghum 
with  corn  or  a  rank  growing  crop.  Grass,  cowpeas 
or  the  less  greedy  plants  should  be  employed.  In 
planting  sorghum  it  is  necessary  to  have  the  land 
free  from  weeds.  If  the  land  is  weedy  the  sorghum 


SORGHUM  217 

cannot  make  headway  against  them.  For  hay  pur- 
poses, cut  when  the  grain  is  in  the  dough,  using  a 
mower,  binder,  or,  if  planted  in  rows,  a  corn  har- 
vester. After  cutting  allow  the  sorghum  to  remain 
on  the  ground  until  it  is  partially  cured,  then  rake 
up  and  store  in  shocks.  Little  difficulty  is  encoun- 
tered in  curing  and  if  good-sized  shocks  are  made 
they  will,  as  a  rule,  turn  the  water.  The  sorghum 
hay  can  either  be  fed  from  the  shocks  or  taken  to 
the  barn  and  fed  or  stored  in  stacks.  From  3  to 
12  or  15  tons  of  cured  forage  are  made  to  the  acre. 
Two  cuttings  give  larger  returns  than  a  single 
cutting.  More  forage  will  generally  be  obtained 
from  the  sorghum  than  if  the  same  land  were  given 
over  to  corn. 

As  a  soiling  crop  sorghum  is  well  liked.  At  any 
time  during  the  summer  the  green  forage  can  be 
fed  to  all  classes  of  live  stock,  but  it  is  generally 
used  for  feeding  dairy  cows.  It  is  not  advisable 
to  allow  either  sheep  or  cattle  to  have  free  access 
to  a  green  sorghum  until  they  have  got  used  to  it, 
and  often  then  death  may  occur  to  some,  due  to  the 
prussic  acid  that  is  formed  when  sorghum  is  cured 
into  hay.  Feeding  is  done  as  with  corn  stover, 
either  in  the  barn  lot  or  in  the  open  fields.  As  a 
silo  crop  sorghum  has  not  proved  a  success.  The 
most  satisfactory  returns  from  feeding  the  grain 
are  secured  when  ground  and  fed  in  connection 
with  some  other  feeding  stuff  relatively  rich  in 
protein. 

Harvesting  for  Fodder. — Two  methods  may  be 
followed  in  harvesting  sorghum.  The  most  com- 
mon is  to  cut  with  mower,  let  it  cure  for  a  few  days, 
then  pile  up  in  large  shocks  8  or  10  feet  high,  and 
let  it  remain  in  the  field  until  wanted  for  feed  or 


21 8  FARM   CROPS 

until  it  has  dried  out  thoroughly,  when  it  can  be 
taken  to  the  mower  or  placed  in  stacks  convenient 
to  the  feed  lot. 

Begin  cutting  when  some  of  the  heads  are  pretty 
well  ripened,  as  it  will  not  do  to  cut  early  before 
the  sugar  begins  to  form  in  the  juice.  Do  not  be 
afraid  of  making  the  shocks  in  the  field  too  large. 
There  will  be  plenty  of  air  space  between  the  stalks 
and  the  larger  the  shock  the  greener  and  fresher 
the  forage.  Then,  too,  have  no  fear  about  the  keep- 
ing of  the  fodder  in  the  field.  It  is  coarse  and  will 
turn  water  almost  as  well  as  a  thatched  roof.  The 
outside  of  the  shock  will  bleach,  but  just  beneath 
the  surface  the  fodder  will  be  bright  and  green. 
Where  the  crop  is  heavy  the  shocks  will  stand  very 
thick  on  the  ground. 

The  other  method,  and  one  rapidly  growing  in 
favor,  is  to  drill  in  rows  and  cut  with  the  corn 
binder.  Make  the  bundles  very  small,  not  more 
than  6  inches  in  diameter.  Let  them  lie  in  the  field 
until  pretty  well  cured  out.  This  may  take  a  week 
or  more  if  the  weather  is  dry.  It  is  best  to  be  in  no 
hurry  about  standing  them  up.  If  rains  come  while 
on  the  ground,  the  fodder  is  apt  to  be  spattered  with 
mud.  If  one  has  the  time  it  is  very  satisfactory  to 
stand,  say,  half  a  dozen  bundles  in  a  place  and  after 
they  have  dried  for  a  time,  build  into  bigger  shocks, 
there  practically  being  no  limit,  provided  the  tops 
are  tied  tightly  together  so  as  to  keep  out  the  rain ; 
or,  as  in  some  places  where  the  fodder  is  to  stand  out 
all  winter,  the  tops  are  covered  with  bundles  broken 
at  the  bands  as  cap  sheaves  for  small  grain  stock. 
This  method  of  harvesting  is  decidedly  the  best, 
as  the  crop  is  so  much  more  easily  handled  in  bun- 
dles than  when  loose.  The  bundles  are  hauled  to 


SOY   BEANS  2IQ 

the  feed  lot  or  barn  on  a  low  wagon.     It  is  useless 
to  attempt  to  handle  them  with  a  fork. 

SOY  BEANS. — Like  the  cowpea,  the  soy  bean 
wants  warm  weather  in  which  to  grow,  and  it  oc- 


THE    SOY   BEAN 

It  is  a  native  of  China  and  Japan.  It  is  an 
erect  annual,  with  branching  stems  and  heavy 
forage  much  like  the  common  field  bean  in  ap- 
pearance. The  plant  stands  dry  seasons  ex- 
tremely well  and  its  domain  is  gradually  being 
enlarged. 


cupies  about  the  same  time  in  coming  into  matur- 
ity. The  small  dwarf  varieties  will  mature  in  90 
days  or  less  from  the  date  of  planting,  but  the  time 
required  for  the  larger  sorts  is  from  120  to  140 
days.  The  uses  of  the  soy  bean  are  somewhat 
similar  to  those  of  the  cowpea.  It  may  be  grown  to 
furnish  grazing  for  cattle,  sheep  or  swine,  but  in 
providing  food  for  swine  it  has  highest  adaptation, 
although  when  thus  grown  and  harvested  by  the 


220  FARM   CROPS 

swine,  the  grain  produced  is  the  only  part  utilized. 
It  is  also  grown  to  furnish  hay  and  grain  for 
stock.  In  some  localities  its  highest  use  has  been 
found  in  growing  it  for  the  silo.  When  made  into 
silage  along  with  corn  it  adds  protein  to  the 
feed.  It  is  also  an  excellent  renovator  of  the 
soil. 

Place  in  Rotation. — It  may  be  given  any  place  in 
the  rotation,  but  it  usually  comes  in  best  after  some 
winter  crop  has  been  grazed  down,  and  in  some  in- 
stances after  it  has  been  harvested.  In  the  Northern 
states  it  may  come  after  winter  rye  has  been  grazed 
down.  In  Central  and  Southern  states  it  may  be  made 
to  come  after  any  winter  cereal  has  been  harvested. 
The  soy  bean  will  grow  on  a  wide  range  of  soils. 
However,  it  wants  more  fertile  soil  than  will  answer 
for  the  cowpea.  It  would  not  be  wise  to  sow  it  on 
poor  lands  without  the  application  of  some  kind  of 
fertilizer.  It  grows  well  on  nearly  all  the  soils  of 
the  prairie  region  and  it  will  do  reasonably  well  on 
clays. 

Varieties  to  Plant. — Far  north  in  the  United 
States  varieties  known  as  the  Early  Dwarf  and  the 
Extra  Early  Dwarf  are  among  the  best  to  grow. 
They  may  answer  well  to  furnish  gleaning  for 
swine  and  also  to  fertilize  the  land  when  grown 
as  a  catch  crop,  as  it  were,  in  the  summer  season. 
Farther  south,  the  two  varieties  known  as  the  Early 
Yellow  and  the  Medium  Early  Green  are  among 
the  best.  The  former  is  a  favorite  in  Kansas  and 
the  latter  in  Massachusetts.  The  Medium  Late 
Green  and  the  Medium  Late  Black  will  grow  nicely 
farther  south.  The  Early  Green  and  Early  Yellow 
both  grow  large  enough  to  admit  of  putting  them 
into  the  silo. 


SOY  BEANS  221 

When  the  ground  has  been  well  mellowed  and 
the  crop  is  wanted  for  pasture  in  the  green  form, 
or  for  hay  or  manure,  it  may  be  broadcasted  or 
planted  in  rows.  When  wanted  mainly  for  the 
grain,  the  seed  is  put  in  rows  with  the  corn  with 
the  grain  drill  more  commonly,  but  sometimes  with 
the  corn  planter  or  ordinary  bean  planter.  In 
growing  the  small  varieties,  the  rows  may  be  as 
near  as  24  inches.  The  largest  varieties  call  for 
a  distance  between  the  rows  of  not  less  than  3  feet. 
The  plants  in  the  row  will  bear  growing  thickly, 
as  the  habit  of  growth  is  upright.  The  distance 
between  the  plants  may  vary  from  2  to  5  or  6 
inches,  according  to  the  size  of  the  plants.  The 
amount  of  seed  used  per  acre  is  seldom  less  than 
half  a  bushel. 

When  once  started,  soy  beans  are  hardy  plants. 
They  will  stand  being  run  over  with  a  weeder  or 
light  harrow  after  they  are  up,  without  taking  much 
harm.  But  one  or  the  other  of  these  implements 
ought  to  be  used  on  them  just  before  they  appear, 
and  then,  if  necessary,  once  after  they  are  up.  Later, 
the  corn  cultivators  may  be  kept  going  until  the 
season  of  bloom.  With  careful  attention  to  the  cul- 
tivation, hand  hoeing  may  not  be  necessary.  The 
cultivation  thus  given  very  effectively  summer 
fallows  the  soil. 

SPELT.— One  of  the  types  of  the  wheat  family 
widely  cultivated  in  ancient  times.  Outside  of 
Spain,  it  is  sparingly  cultivated  or  used.  In  this 
country  it  has  been  used  as  a  stock  food  only,  and 
that  largely  in  an  experimental  way.  Both  spring 
and  winter  varieties  are  found,  but  in  neither  case 
is  the-  yield  as  great  as  with  common  wheat.  Its 
most  fatal  disease  is  rust,  but  it  withstands  other 


222  FARM    CROPS 

ailments  better  than  the  other  wheat  varieties.  It 
has  another  good  quality — its  ability  to  hold  the 
grain  in  the  spike.  Common  wheat  shatters  very 
easily,  but  spelt  never  shatters.  It  is  not  believed 
that  there  is  much  future  for  spelt  in  this 
country. 

SPURRY. — A  plant  highly  esteemed  as  a  pasture 
for  cattle  and  sheep  and  for  its  fodder.  It  has  been 
found  specially  valuable  as  a  pasture  for  sheep  and 
milch  cows.  Animals  pastured  on  it  are  not  liable 
to  injury  from  bloat.  Though  they  may  not  take 
kindly  to  the  pasture  at  the  first,  they  soon  get  ex- 
ceedingly fond  of  it,  both  in  the  green  and  cured 
form.  It  also  has  good  milk-producing  and  fatten- 
ing properties. 

Spurry  is  a  tiny-like  plant  which  grows  from  a 
few  inches  to  fully  20  inches  in  height,  according 
to  the  soil.  The  variety  that  has  come  into  the 
market  under  the  name  of  giant  spurry  is  simply 
the  ordinary  spurry.  It  is  not  capable  of  making 
a  stronger  growth  than  ordinary  spurry,  as  the  name 
would  indicate.  The  stems  of  spurry  are  numerous 
and  exceedingly  branched.  They  are  fine  in  char- 
acter, and  they  so  interlace  as  to  make  it  difficult 
to  walk  through  the  crop  in  an  advanced  stage  of 
growth  without  tripping.  The  flowers  are  very 
many,  are  not  more  than  one-eighth  of  an  inch  in 
diameter  and  are  white  in  color.  The  seeds  are 
small.  They  are  contained  in  small  seed  heads 
resembling  those  of  flax,  but  not  more  than  half  as 
large.  They  vary  from  dark  brown  to  black  in 
color.  The  plants  seed  profusely.  On  some  soils 
the  yield  of  fodder  has  been  estimated  as  equal  to 
that  of  clover,  but  ordinarily  it  would  not  be  so 
much. 


SPURRY  223 

The  plant  has  special  adaptation  for  light,  sandy 
soils,  and  for  climates  that  are  moist.  Whether  it 
will  be  given  a  place  of  much  prominence  in  our 
agriculture  has  yet  to  be  determined.  On  produc- 
tive soils  it  is  not  likely  to  come  into  general  favor, 
since  other  plants  equally  nutritious  will  give 
greater  yields.  But  on  light,  sandy  soils  low  in  fer- 
tility it  should  render  valuable  service  where 
moisture  is  sufficiently  abundant.  When  plowed 
under  in  the  green  form  it  has  been  found  specially 
helpful  in  giving  body  to  the  light,  sandy  soil,  and 
in  otherwise  fitting  it  to  grow  successfully  crops  of 
clover  and  grain. 

Spurry  should  be  sown  more  as  a  catch  crop  than 
as  a  regular  crop  in  the  rotation.  It  should  be  ready 
to  pasture  or  to  plow  under  in  from  6  to  8 
weeks  from  the  date  of  sowing,  providing  it  is  not 
sown  before  the  weather  has  become  warm.  Where 
there  is  moisture  enough  to  insure  germination, 
spurry  can  be  sown  after  a  grain  crop,  and  simply 
covered  with  a  harrow.  On  the  bare  fallow  it  also 
has  a  place.  When  grown  as  a  green  manure  or  as 
a  pasture  for  sheep,  two  crops  a  year  may  be 
secured,  and  in  some  climates  three.  This  crop, 
therefore,  is  worthy  of  attention  on  the  part  of 
farmers,  more  especially  on  pine  lands  where  the 
soil  is  sandy  and  poor  and  where  the  climate  is 
moist  in  character. 

Since  spurry  is  best  adapted  to  light,  sandy  lands, 
but  little  labor  is  necessary  in  preparing  the  soil. 
The  seed  should  fall  on  a  smooth,  impacted  and  fine 
surface,  and  it  may  be  sown  and  covered  in  the 
same  way  as  clover  seed.  As  the  seed  is  small,  a 
light  harrow  will  give  a  sufficient  covering.  From 
6  to  8  quarts  of  seed  are  sown  to  the  acre  to 


224  FARM    CROPS 

provide  pasture,  fodder  or  green  manure.  But  a 
less  quantity  will  suffice  to  produce  a  seed  crop  in 
good  form.  It  is  ready  to  cut  for  hay  after  the  seed 
has  formed  and  before  it  is  ripe.  The  seed  may  be 
harvested  and  threshed  like  clover  seed.  When 
grown  for  the  seed,  a  sufficient  quantity  is  likely  to 
shatter  out  to  produce  a  crop  the  next  year  by 
simply  running  the  harrow  over  the  land  in  the 
early  spring. 

Spurry  has  been  called  "the  clover  of  light,  sandy 
soils,"  because  of  its  value  in  improving  the  same, 
both  in  texture  and  fertility,  when  grown  as  a  green 
manure.  It  should  be  turned  under  with  a  light 
furrow  that  the  plant  food  may  be  kept  near  the 
surface.  If  some  of  the  seed  is  allowed  to  ripen 
before  the  crop  is  thus  buried,  another  crop  of 
spurry  will  grow  above  the  decaying  plants  with- 
out the  necessity  of  sowing  any  more  seed.  Under 
some  conditions  it  is  possible  to  plow  under  three 
crops  of  spurry  in  one  season. 

SUGAR  BEET. — A  root  crop  for  sugar  and  feed. 
The  dried  pulp,  a  by-product  of  the  sugar  factories, 
is  an  excellent  food  for  live  stock,  especially  for 
dairy  cows.  So,  too,  are  the  whole  roots  good,  but 
they  cost  too  much.  The  beets  are  much  relished 
by  stock  and  their  physiological  effect  is  an  aid  to 
digestion  like  all  succulent  rations.  The  dried  pulp 
acts  in  this  way  and  compares  favorably  with  many 
concentrate  feeds.  When  grown  under  proper  cul- 
tural conditions  the  amount  of  sugar  will  vary  from 
12  to  20  per  cent,  depending  on  the  variety  and  soil. 
Most  of  the  seed  is  obtained  from  Europe,  though 
small  amounts  are  now  being  secured  in  this  coun- 
try, with  possibilities  that  the  industry  will  be 
enlarged. 


SUGAR   BEET 


225 


To  grow  beet  seed  special  technical  skill  is  re- 
quired. It  is  always  advisable  to  know  how  much 
sugar  is  in  the  beet  before  it  is  allowed  to  mature 
for  seed  purposes.  It  is  by  patience  and  industry 
that  it  is  ascer- 
tained and  be- 
cause of  them  the 
high  sugar  con- 
tent of  beets  has 
been  developed. 
Chemical  ma- 
nures are  neces- 
sary in  growing 
beets  except  in 
the  most  fertile 
soils.  Phos- 
phorus and  po- 
tassium are  espe- 
cially important. 
The  use  of  phos- 
phatic  fertilizers 
has  a  tendency  to 
increase  the 
sugar  content  of 
the  juice.  Ex- 
cept in  connec- 
tion with  phos- 
phorus  and 
potassium  nitrog- 
enous fertilizers 
should  be  spar- 
ingly applied.  If 
used  excessively 
they  produce  abnormally  large  beets  and  the  sugar 
content  is  low.  They  should  always  be  grown  in 


SUGAR   BEET 

The  two  most  commonly  grown  va- 
rieties of  sugar  beet  in  this  country 
are  the  Vilmorin  Improved  and  Klein- 
wanzlebener.  The  former  usually  an- 
alyzes a  little  higher  percentage  in 
sugar,  but  the  latter  gives  the  higher 
yield.  Most  of  the  sugar  beet  seed 
used  in  this  country  is  grown  in 
Europe. 


226  FARM    CROPS 

some  rotation  system,  a  popular  one  being  corn 
heavily  manured  with  stable  manure  the  first  year, 
followed  by  beets  the  second,  oats  or  barley  the 
third,  and  clover  the  fourth.  Then  corn  again,  the 
rotation  being  repeated.  By  applying  the  barnyard 
manure  to  the  corn  the  weed  seeds  will  be  sprouted 
and  killed  in  cultivation.  The  rank  growth  that 
barnyard  manure  tends  to  cause  will  be  lost  by  the 
time  the  beets  come  in  the  rotation  and  the  soil  will 
be  put  in  excellent  condition  for  the  beet  crop. 

Preparing  Land  for  Sugar  Beets. — The  best  soil 
for  the  sugar  beet  is  a  strong,  rich,  well-drained 
loam,  with  a  porous  subsoil.  The  beet  does  well 
on  a  great  variety  of  soils  provided  the  land  is 
properly  prepared,  but  at  the  start  only  those  fields 
should  be  put  into  the  crop  that  from  the  best 
obtainable  knowledge  are  believed  to  be  well 
adapted  to  the  crop.  It  is  important  that  the  land 
should  be  in  a  good  degree  of  fertility,  and.  so  far 
as  possible,  free  from  weeds. 

The  main  thing  is  deep  plowing.  Here  is  where 
the  average  farmer  errs  when  he  begins  beet  cul- 
ture. Deep  plowing  is  needed  because  the  beet  is 
a  deep-rooting  plant.  To  make  the  best  growth, 
richest  in  sugar,  the  soil  must  be  so  deep  that  the 
plant  will  bury  the  top  of  the  root  under  the 
soil,  as  the  parsnip  does,  and  at  the  same  time 
be  able  to  send  its  taproot  down  without  let  or 
hindrance. 

Of  course  fall  plowing  is  best.  But  whether 
spring  or  fall  plowed  8  to  10  inches  deep  is  neces- 
sary. Put  on  a  stout  team  and  plow  8  to  10  inches 
deep,  provided  you  do  not  turn  up  an  inch  or  two  of 
fresh  soil  that  has  never  before  seen  the  light  of 
day.  In  many  cases,  too  much  of  this  fresh  soil 


SUGAR   BEET  227 

on  the  surface  will  retard  germination  of  beet  seed 
and  interfere  with  the  best  development  of  the 
young  plants.  The  ordinary  plow  should  be  fol- 
lowed by  a  subsoil  plow  that  will  stir  the  subsoil 
several  inches  below  the  depth  reached  by  the  first 
plow,  but  not  throw  the  subsoil  on  top.  The  more 
compact  the  subsoil,  the  more  necessary  does  this 
subsoiling  become.  Indeed,  it  cannot  be  dispensed 
with,  at  least  where  the  entire  preparation  of  the 
land  must  be  done  in  the  spring. 

Having  thus  reached  a  good  depth  with  the  two 
plows,  put  on  a  spike-toothed  harrow  with  long 
teeth  and  weight  it  so  that  it  will  reach  as  far  down 
as  the  first  plow  went.  If  you  have  a  narrow- 
toothed  cultivator  for  such  deep  work  it  would  be 
still  better.  There  are  various  forms  of  cultivators 
or  harrows  that  can  be  used.  This  will  give  you 
a  soil  thoroughly  pulverized  down  to  a  depth  of  6 
or  8  inches,  and  quite  well  opened  up.  The  surface 
should  now  be  prepared  for  seeding  by  going  over 
it  with  a  light  harrow  that  will  give  a  seed 
bed  2  or  3  inches  deep  in  a  perfectly  fine  condi- 
tion. If  the  soil  is  very  dry  and  there  is  danger 
of  its  blowing  in  heavy  winds,  it  may  be  well  to 
roll  it. 

Sow  the  seed  in  drills  20  inches  apart.  A  variety 
of  excellent  seed  drills  or  machines  is  available  for 
this  purpose.  Better  use  too  much  than  too  little 
seed,  as  the  beet  is  not  successfully  transplanted. 
If  the  soil  is  reasonably  moist  and  the  weather 
warm,  thus  favoring  germination,  several  pounds 
less  an  acre  may  be  used  than  if  the  land  is  wet 
and  the  air  cold.  Better  use  15  or  even  20  pounds 
of  seed  an  acre  than  have  a  slim  stand  because  of 
too  little  seed.  This  is  a  point  upon  which  there 


228  FARM   CROPS 

are  great  differences  of  opinion ;  all  the  way  from 
3  to  20  pounds  of  seed  are  used,  but  experienced 
growers  usually  plant  about  10  or  12  pounds.  The 
rows  should  be  about  20  inches  apart  to  permit  of 
horse  cultivation,  but  14  inches  apart  will  do  for 
hand  culture. 

When  the  outside  leaves  take  on  a  yellowish 
tinge  and  drop  to  the  ground  the  beets  are  ripe  and 
should  be  harvested.  The  mature  beets  are  richer 
in  sugar  than  the  immature,  and  the  more  mature 
when  pulled  also  the  richer  the  sugar.  The  beets 
may  remain  in  the  soil  for  a  considerable  time  after 
ripening  without  injury.  Cold  weather  does  no 
damage  if  freezing  and  thawing  do  not  alternate. 
The  sugar  content  will  be  lessened  if  the  beets  start 
a  second  growth  in  the  fall.  The  harvesting  is 
done  either  by  special  sugar  beet  pullers  or  by 
plowing  down  one  or  both  sides  of  the  row  to  loosen 
the  beets  so  that  they  can  more  easily  be  pulled  out 
by  hand.  The  tops  are  cut  off,  including  that  part 
of  the  root  to  which  the  stems  of  the  leaves  have 
been  attached. 

Upon  being  harvested  they  are  either  stored  or 
sent  to  the  market  at  once.  If  stored  they  should 
be  put  in  long  narrow  piles  and  covered  with  suf- 
ficient straw  and  earth  for  protection  against  frost. 
If  too  much  earth  is  added  in  early  fall  the  beets 
may  get  warm  and  ferment,  thus  losing  some  of  the 
sugar.  A  ventilator  placed  at  the  top  of  the  pile 
will  enable  the  heat  and  moisture  to  escape. 

SUGAR  CANE.— A  gigantic  grass  with  fibrous 
roots  which  reach  laterally  in  every  direction.  The 
stalk  is  a  cylinder,  varying  in  diameter  from  I  to  2 
inches  with  joints  from  2  to  6  inches  apart  on  the 
stalk.  The  stalks  vary  in  color,  running  from  white 


SUGAR   CANE  229 

to  black  and  even  yellow,  green  and  purple.  For- 
merly it  was  thought  that  sugar  cane  could  be 
grown  only  in  tropical  lands,  but  it  is  now  grown 
very  successfully  in  this  country,  especially  in 
Louisiana.  Much  cane  is  grown  in  Georgia,  Ala- 
bama and  Mississippi.  An  enormous  amount  of 
water  is  required  for  the  best  development  of  the 
cane  and  where  the  rainfall  is  deficient  irrigation  is 
practiced.  While  water  is  required  in  great  abun- 
dance, a  well-drained  soil  is  absolutely  essential  to 
vigorous  growth  and  to  large,  mature  canes.  The 
soils  best  adapted  to  canes  are  those  which  con- 
tain the  largest  amount  of  fertilizing  material  and 
which  have  a  large  water-holding  capacity. 

Cane  is  usually  planted  in  5  to  6-foot  rows.  A 
trench  is  opened  in  the  center  of  the  row  with  a 
plow  and  in  this  open  furrow  is  deposited  a  con- 
tinuous line  of  stalks  which  are  carefully  covered 
with  plow,  cultivator  or  hoe.  From  one  to  three 
continuous  lines  of  stalks  are  placed  in  the  furrow. 
From  2  to  6  tons  of  seed  cane  are  required  for  an 
acre.  In  favorable  seasons  this  cane  soon  sprouts 
and  then  cultivation  begins.  Each  young  sprout 
sends  out  many  shoots  and  soon  the  entire  row  is 
filled  with  cane.  Being  a  rank  grower  large  quan- 
tities of  fertilizers  are  needed.  The  usual  quantity 
to  an  acre  varies  from  400  to  700  pounds.  The 
cane  is  harvested  annually  on  account  of  the  frost 
of  winters  which  would  be  destructive  to  a  good 
yield  of  sugar.  The  sugar  content  varies  from  n 
to  16  per  cent.  The  sandy  soils  of  Georgia,  Florida 
and  Alabama  give  a  richer  juice  than  the  alluvial 
soils  of  Louisiana. 

The  cane  is  crushed  for  sugar  before  winter  and 
the  crop  harvested  before  frost  comes.  The  leaves 


230  FARM    CROPS 

are  stripped  off  and  the  first  and  sometimes  the 
second  of  the  upper  joints  removed.  The  yield  of 
sugar  cane  varies  from  10  to  50  tons  to  the  acre  and 
the  amount  of  sugar  in  a  ton  of  cane  from  100  to 
300  pounds,  besides  a  considerable  amount  of 
molasses.  The  sugar  from  the  cane  may  be  manu- 
factured on  a  small  scale  and  with  comparatively 
simple  machinery.  For  the  economical  production 
of  sugar  of  the  best  quality  an  expensive  plant  is 
necessary 

SUNFLOWER.— A  native  annual  from  8  to  20 
feet  high  with  heads  from  8  to  16  inches  in  diameter. 
The  seed  is  gray,  brown  or  striped.  In  growing  a 
crop  of  sunflower  the  land  should  be  prepared  as 
for  corn.  The  seed  is  placed  in  drills  2  or  3  inches 
deep,  about  3  feet  apart  and  about  15  pounds  of 
seed  to  the  acre.  When  the  plants  are  from  6  to  8 
inches  high  the  rows  should  be  thinned,  leaving  one 
stalk  to  about  16  inches  on  an  average.  Slight 
frosts  do  not  injure  the  plants  and  maturity  of  the 
crop  is  generally  reached.  The  sunflower  heads 
should  be  harvested  before  the  seed  is  fully  ripe 
else  much  will  be  shattered  out  and  lost. 

When  thoroughly  dry  the  heads  are  beaten  out 
with  a  flail.  Seed  may  be  stored  in  small  bins  or 
barrels.  Avoid  a  large  quantity  in  one  place  or  bin 
in  order  to  prevent  heating.  From  750  to  900 
pounds  of  seed  are  obtained  from  an  acre  with  the 
price  running  from  3  to  4  cents  a  pound.  The  seeds 
are  used  for  different  purposes ;  for  making  oil,  for 
bird  and  poultry  seed  and  for  stock  feed.  Very 
often  the  sunflower  heads  are  mixed  with  corn  for 
silage,  and  they  make  a  very  superior  feed.  Butter 
resulting  from  this  kind  of  feed  is  of  rich  flavor  and 
of  high  colon  The  Mammoth  Russian  is  an  im- 


231 


232  FARM    CROPS 

proved  variety  with  seeds  about  J^  inch  long,  black 
in  color  or  with  brownish  stripes.  The  heads  run 
from  15  to  20  inches  in  diameter.  It  is  one  of  the 
best  varieties  for  the  production  of  oil. 

Black  Giant,  another  popular  variety,  has  heads 
ranging  from  15  to  20  inches  in  diameter.  The 
seeds  are  not  quite  as  long  and  are  black  in  color. 
A  silage  mixture  known  as  Robertson's  mixture  is 
a  mixture  of  sunflower  heads,  horse  beans  and  corn, 
in  the  proportion  of  two  acres  of  corn  and  beans 
to  one-half  acre  of  sunflowers.  This  mixture,  al- 
though much  publicity  was  given  it  a  few  years  ago, 
has  not  come  into  use  in  this  country.  The  sun- 
flower has  a  narrow  field  of  usefulness;  if  grown 
at  all  on  most  farms,  it  will  be  for  a  limited  supply 
of  poultry  feed. 

SWEET  CLOVER.— A  strong,  vigorous  grow- 
ing biennial.  It  is  branched  and  upright  in  its 
habit  of  growth.  It  is  one  of  the  most  hardy  plants 
of  the  clover  family.  When  once  firmly  rooted  it 
has  great  power  to  withstand  drouth  and  heat,  and 
it  can  also  endure  low  temperatures.  Being  a 
ravenous  feeder  it  is  able  to  maintain  itself  in  soils 
too  poor  to  sustain  other  species  of  the  clover 
family.  It  is  a  legume  and  one  which  has  much 
power  to  renovate  soils.  A  plant,  therefore,  which 
is  possessed  of  such  powers  should  not  be  looked 
upon  as  worthless.  It  has  not  been  much  grown 
for  pasture,  but  for  such  use  it  may  yet  prove  to 
be  of  value.  When  sheep,  for  instance,  have 
access  to  a  variety  of  grasses  they  usually  pass 
sweet  clover  by,  even  when  it  is  young  and  ten- 
der. But  if  confined  to  such  a  pasture  when  it 
first  begins  to  grow  they  soon  begin  to  crop 
it  down. 


SWEET   POTATO  233 

Sweet  clover  can  be  sown  only  in  the  spring  or 
summer  in  very  cold  latitudes,  but  in  those  that 
are  mild  it  can  be  sown  in  the  autumn  or  spring, 
preferably  the  former.  Usually  not  less  than  15 
pounds  of  the  seed  is  sown  to  the  acre.  In  the 
South  it  is  frequently  sown  on  the  surface  of  stub- 
ble lands  after  the  crop  has  been  harvested,  and 
when  thus  sown  it  is  only  covered  by  the  harrow. 
If  sweet  clover  is  kept  from  blossoming,  the  land 
will  soon  be  freed  from  it.  Although  it  seeds 
profusely,  the  high  price  of  seed  at  the  present 
time  stands  much  in  the  way  of  extending  its 
growth. 

SWEET  POTATO.— If  one  wishes  to  set  out 
100  to  200  sweet  potato  plants  it  may  be  cheaper 
to  buy  them  from  a  local  dealer,  or  if  they  cannot  be 
obtained  from  him,  to  send  to  a  seedsman  and  have 
them  sent  by  mail.  If  one  wishes  to  set  500  or 
more  plants  he  had  better  raise  them  himself. 
For  growing  plants  the  seed  should  be  placed  in  a 
hotbed  in  soil  about  2  inches  above  the  manure  and 
covered  with  at  least  3  inches  of  soil ;  4  would 
be  better.  Place  the  seed  potatoes  one  deep  as 
closely  together  as  may  be  without  touching.  When 
they  are  covered,  press  the  soil  down  over  them 
firmly.  The  ideal  size  for  seed  is  1*4  inches  in 
diameter.  Be  sure  not  to  use  seed  that  shows  any 
sign  of  black  rot  or  any  other  fungous  disease.  A 
peck  of  seed  will  raise  500  plants  at  the  first  pull- 
ing. If  care  is  taken  not  to  disturb  the  potato 
when  pulling  the  plants,  there  may  be  a  .second 
pulling. 

Soil  and  Fertilizers. — A  warm,  sandy  soil  of  fair 
to  good  richness  is  to  be  preferred.  If  this  type  is 
not  available  any  kind  may  be  used,  but  sticky  soils 


234  FARM  CROPS 

ought  to  be  avoided.  They  run  together  and  lessen 
the  yield.  Well-rotted  barnyard  manure  is  help- 
ful to  any  soil  and  will  be  splendidly  accounted 
for  if  added  to  the  sweet  potato  patch.  The  best 
time  to  apply  is  during  the  fall  and  winter 
months. 

For  fertilizing  a  complete  manure  is  best,  es- 
pecially if  the  land  is  old  and  possessed  of  little 
humus.  A  mixture  consisting  of  200  pounds  of 
nitrate  of  soda,  650  pounds  of  acid  phosphate  and 
150  pounds  of  sulphate  of  potash  makes  a  very 
satisfactory  fertilizer.  Anywhere  from  200  to  1,000 
pounds  of  this  mixture  can  be  used  to  the  acre.  In 
case  the  soil  is  already  supplied  with  organic  mat- 
ter, nitrogen  in  the  fertilizers  applied  may  be 
omitted.  Potash  is  of  most  importance,  and 
especially  desirable ;  phosphoric  acid  also,  although 
in  a  less  degree. 

The  Farmer's  Little  Patch.— The  plants  need  not 
be  very  large,  but  should  be  well  rooted.  As  the 
plants  are  pulled  they  should  be  put  in  bundles  of 
from  25  to  50  each,  and  in  this  shape  they  can  be 
placed  in  a  vessel  of  water  and  kept  several  days 
without  injury.  In  preparing  the  soil  for  setting 
the  plants,  the  ideal  way  would  be  to  use  ground 
that  was  plowed  in  the  fall  before  and  simply  work 
it  up  fine  before  planting.  But  in  case  this  has  not 
been  done  the  ground  should  be  well  pulverized, 
then  rolled  or  packed,  and  then  laid  off  in  ridges 
3  feet  apart  from  center  to  center.  Ridges  are  best 
made  by  running  a  small  plow  once  on  each  side, 
which  gives  a  flatter  ridge  than  if  a  larger  plow 
were  used  making  one  of  loose  dirt  compact  at  the 
bottom. 

The    plants    should   be    placed    about    15    inches 


SWEET   POTATO  235 

apart.  In  setting  them  use  a  dibble  and  after  in- 
serting the  plant  in  the  hole  press  the  soil  firmly 
about  it.  A  week  or  two  after  the  plants  are  set, 
a  cultivator  may  be  run  between  the  ridges  and 
although  it  may  tear  them  down  somewhat,  it  will 
not  disturb  the  plants.  It  might  be  well  about  this 
time  to  hoe  between  the  plants,  or  probably  a  little 
later.  The  plants  should  not  be  set  until  danger  of 
frost  is  over.  The  setting  may  be  done  in  any  way 
most  convenient,  provided  plants  in  good  condition 
are  set  firmly  into  good,  moist  soil,  preferably  late 
in  the  afternoon  or  evening,  or  on  a  cloudy  day. 
If  set  in  this  way  no  watering  is  needed,  but  have 
the  plants  wet  at  the  time  of  setting.  If  the  weather 
is  hot  and  the  ground  very  dry  it  will  be  necessary 
to  use  water. 

Setting  Large  Areas. — When  many  plants  are  to 
be  set  and  the  ridges  are  in  good  condition,  run  a 
furrow  a  little  to  one  side  of  the  center  of  the  ridge 
with  a  hand  wheel  plow  and  have  the  plants 
dropped  on  the  side  of  this  furrow,  which  is  in  the 
center  of  the  ridge.  A  man  follows  and  covers 
with  a  hoe,  stepping  on  the  soil  over  each  plant 
with  his  whole  weight,  thus  packing  it  firm  and 
tight.  Plants  are  dropped  at  a  distance  of  12  to  24 
inches  apart,  according  to  the  variety  and  the  pur- 
pose for  which  they  are  being  grown,  but  about  15 
inches  apart  is  the  usual  average. 

In  a  week  or  ten  days  after  the  plants  are  set, 
they  should  be  gone  through  with  a  cultivator.  I 
like  the  harrow  cultivator  best  for  the  first  time. 
At  this  time  they  should  also  be  gone  over  lightly 
with  the  hoe  and  if  any  of  the  first  setting  have  died 
they  may  be  replaced  in  order  that  the  stand  may 
be  as  perfect  as  possible.  After  this  the  cultivator 


236 


FARM   CROPS 


should  be  run  through  them  once  a  week  until  they 
begin  to  vine  considerably,  or  enough  so  that  in  a 
short  time  the  whole  surface  will  be  covered  by 
them.  During  the  time  of  cultivation  the  hoe 
should  be  used  freely  and  often,  and  all  weeds  and 
grass  destroyed  soon  after  the  plants  make  their 
appearance.  Also  the  soil  should  be  kept  hoed  to 
the  plants  rather  than  away  from  them  and  at  the 
last  plowing  it  is  usual  to  use  something  larger  than 
a  common  cultivator — a  large  single  shovel  having 
the  preference. 

Treatment  of  the  Vines. — If  the  vines  get  quite 
long  before  this  last  plowing  it  may  be  necessary 
to  turn  them  into  each  alter- 
nate middle,  plowing  the  one 
from  which  they  have  been 
turned.  They  are  turned  into 
the  middles,  freshly  plowed, 
and  the  remaining  ones  also 
plowed.  A  little  hand  work 
with  the  hoe  after  plowing  is 
done,  drawing  up  a  little  earth 
here  and  uncovering  a  little 
there  where  the  plow  may 
have  thrown  too  much,  and 
the  labor  of  cultivation  may 
be  considered  finished.  In  a 
TALLER  FESCUE  short  time  the  vines  will  cover 
the  whole  ground  and  keep 

down  all  weeds  and  grass,  provided  there  was  none 
left  at  the  last  cultivation,  and  a  bountiful  crop 
may  confidently  be  expected,  if  the  soil  is  good  and 
the  work  has  been  thoroughly  done. 

TALL  FESCUE.— Also  known  as  tall  meadow 
fescue  and  taller  fescue.    The  leaves  are  rather  fine. 


p     -si 

o      g 


TALL  OAT   GRASS 


237 


This  fescue  is  adapted  to  pasture  or  meadow,  but  is 
inferior  to  timothy  as  a  hay  crop.  It  is  a  palatable 
hay,  cattle  preferring  it  to  timothy  or  red  top.  It 
starts  in  the  spring  at  about  the  same  time  as  Ken- 
tucky blue  grass.  In  seeding  a  fine  compact  soil  is 
desirable.  Some  time  is  necessary  to  get  the  plant 
established — at  least  two  or 
three  years — before  a  good 
sod  is  secured.  Because  of 
this  fact,  together  with  the 
high  cost  of  seed,  the  tall 
fescue  is  not  adapted  for  tem- 
porary pastures.  When  to  be 
grown,  use  in  a  mixture  with 
the  common  grasses  of  the 
section. 

TALL  OAT  GRASS.— A 
strong  fibrous  perennial 
growing  from  3  to  5  feet  high. 
It  is  hardy,  a  good  drouth 
resister  and  produces  heavily 
both  of  stems  and  leaves.  If 
grown  alone  it  makes  unsuit- 
able hay  because  of  its 
coarseness  and  woody  nature. 
Mixed  with  other  grass  seed 
like  timothy,  red  top  or  the 
fescues  it  can  be  very  satis- 
factorily used,  and  adds  to 
the  value  of  the  mixture. 
Well-drained  and  fairly  rich 
soils  are  best  liked  by  it,  but 

it  will  grow  on  uplands  and  in  all  soils  that  are 
favorable  to  timothy  and  red  top.  As  soon  as  the 
blossoms  appear  the  crop  should  be  cut.  The  sec- 


TALL  OAT  GRASS 


J»«  _<*  igjjjj,  .nd  tan 

sists  drouth  well,    it  is 

unsuited  for  hay   except 

in  mixtures,    it  is  con- 


238  FARM    CROPS 

ond  season  gives  a  better  yield  than  the  first.  Usu- 
ally two  cuttings  and  sometimes  three  are  obtained 
annually  and  from  2  to  5  tons  to  the  acre.  In  pro- 
viding a  mixture,  it  is  a  good  rule  to  use  only  a 
small  proportion  of  this  grass  in  the  regular  mixture. 

TEOSINTE. — A  forage  plant  closely  related  to 
corn.  It  is  an  annual  and  in  appearance  much  like 
corn  with  no  ear  formed.  The  tassel  looks  very 
much  like  corn.  It  grows  very  rank,  stands  from  10  to 
15  feet  in  height  and  bears  a  great  quantity  of  leaves 
and  tender  stems.  A  single  root  may  possess  40  to 
50  stalks.  A  rich  soil  with  a  good  deal  of  moisture 
is  demanded  by  it  and  it  fancies  hot  climates.  It 
cannot  resist  drouth  and  for  this  reason  in  the  drier 
sections  of  the  country  sorghum  and  kafir  corn  are 
more  desirable  crops.  It  is  grown  very  little  in  the 
Northern  states,  its  preference  being  for  the  South 
along  the  gulf.  The  best  time  to  plant  is  in  the 
latter  part  of  May  or  early  June.  It  is  put  in  drills 
3  to  4  feet  apart  and  planted  12  to  16  inches  apart 
in  the  row.  If  hill  planted  three  or  four  seeds 
should  be  used  to  the  hill  and  the  hills  placed  3 
feet  apart  in  the  row.  Rich  lands  call  for  less  seed 
than  poor  lands.  Generally  speaking  about  3 
pounds  of  seed  are  used  to  the  acre  when  thick 
planting  is  resorted  to  and  I  pound  to  the  acre  for 
rich  and  fertile  soils. 

The  crop  is  best  used  for  soiling  purposes.  It  is 
so  juicy  and  succulent  that  to  cure  it,  especially 
in  moist  regions,  is  well-nigh  an  impossibility. 
It  has  been  successfully  ensiled,  but  is  not  so  good 
for  this  purpose  as  corn.  One  beauty  about  the 
crop  for  soiling  purposes  is  that  it  can  be  cut  several 
times  during  a  season.  If  allowed  to  mature  and 
used  as  dry  fodder  it  makes  a  very  heavy  yield, 


TIMOTHY  239 

running  several  tons  of  dry  matter  to  the  acre.  For 
a  forage  arid  soiling  crop  there  is  no  reason  why 
teosinte  should  not  be  more  generally  grown  than 
it  is.  Stock  relish  it,  and  its  food  value  is  high. 
There  is  very  little  of  it  wasted  when  fed.  It  is  a 
crop  that  should  be  well  tried  out  by  dairymen. 

TIMOTHY.— Clean  timothy  hay  is  the  standard 
of  commerce  in  this  country.  By  it  all  other  hays 
are  compared.  It  is  the  most  expensive  hay  either 
when  fed  or  purchased.  It  is  expensive  when  pur- 
chased, because  it  is  the  highest-priced  hay  and 
when  fed  because  its  feeding  value  is  not  com- 
mensurate with  the  price.  As  a  feed  it  is  low  in 
protein;  much  lower  than  any  of  the  legume  hays. 
Its  great  popularity  is  due,  perhaps,  more  largely 
to  the  fact  that  it  is  usually  free  from  dust.  It  is 
commonly  fed  to  work  horses  throughout  the  land, 
often  being  sent  long  distances  to  regions  where  it 
does  not  readily  grow.  But  the  native  grasses  or 
legume  hays,  if  properly  cured,  would  make  as 
clean  feed  and  more  satisfactory  feed  for  farm 
horses,  because  the  nutrients  contained  are  in  all 
cases  better  balanced. 

The  popularity  of  timothy  hay  makes  its  grow- 
ing remunerative  to  the  farmer.  It  is  to  his  advan- 
tage to  dispose  of  timothy  at  high  prices  and  to 
purchase  other  hays  and  grains  with  the  money 
received.  He  will  not  only  get  a  better  feed 
through  the  exchange,  but  something  to  boot  at 
the  same  time.  This  grass  likes  a  moist  soil  and 
does  its  best  on  rich  lands.  It  is  a  perennial  and 
grows  from  2  to  5  feet  high.  It  abhors  sandy  soils 
and  shows  it  by  a  scanty  growth.  The  clay  loams 
attract  it  and  on  these  or  moist  lowlands  the  best 
returns  are  secured. 


240  FARM    CROPS 

Timothy  is  an  exhaustive  crop.  It  adds  no  nitro- 
gen to  the  soil  as  do  the  legumes,  and  not  much 
humus  is  ever  returned  to  the  land.  Its  shallow 
feeding  fibrous  roots  are  not  helpful  in  subsoiling 
the  earth  as  do  most  of  our  other  farm  crops. 
Being  a  shallow  feeder,  the  roots  suffer  if  dry 
weather  continues  for  any  length  of  time.  Timothy 
is  responsive  to  top  dressings  of  stable  manure,  to 
nitrate  of  soda  and  other  chemical  fertilizers.  While 
most  timothy  fields  may  be  pastured  heavily, 
pasturing  during  wet  weather  is  very  disastrous. 
The  common  practice  that  prevails  throughout  the 
country  of  seeding  timothy  on  wheat  lands,  to  be 
followed  the  following  spring  by  clover  in  the 
standing  wheat  is  an  excellent  one.  After  the 
wheat  is  harvested  the  clover  shows  splendid 
growth  that  summer,  and  is  at  its  best  the  follow- 
ing year.  Timothy,  being  a  slow-growing  crop, 
does  not  show  much  activity  the  first  or  second 
summer.  During  the  following  spring  and  sum- 
mer, when  the  clover  has  pretty  largely  disappeared, 
the  timothy  becomes  strong,  healthy  looking  and 
vigorous.  You  see,  the  clover  helped  not  only  the 
land,  but  the  timothy  crop  also.  The  deep-grow- 
ing roots  penetrated  into  the  subsoil,  bringing  phos- 
phorus and  potassium  from  the  storehouse  beneath 
and  left  much  humus  in  the  soil;  and  their  graves 
were  rich  in  nitrogen,  a  gift  to  the  timothy  that  is 
very  satisfying  and  manifested  in  the  subsequent 
crops.  Wheat  is  a  good  nurse  crop  for  timothy,  but 
timothy  may  be  grown  without  a  nurse  crop.  Good 
results  are  secured  from  both  methods.  If  seeded  in 
the  fall,  seed  right  with  wheat.  The  compact  condition 
of  the  soil  secured  in  preparing  the  land  for  wheat 
is  just  what  timothy  likes,  and  whether  seeded  alone 


TIMOTHY  241 

or  with  wheat  or  oats  or  barley,  the  soil  should  be 
fine,  mellow  and  compact.  If  seeded  alone,  from 
12  to  15  pounds  are  used  to  the  acre,  and  if  seeded 
with  wheat  about  10  pounds  to  the  acre,  followed 
with  from  5  to  10  pounds  of  clover  the  following 
spring. 

When  clover  and  timothy  are  mixed  the  hay  is 
not  so  valuable  if  feed  markets  are  catered  to,  but 
the  farmer  always  has  need  for  this  hay  himself. 
It  is  good  policy  to  keep  this  mixed  hay  for  home 
use  and  to  sell  the  clear  timothy  to  the  feed  man 
who  is  willing  to  pay  a  high  price  for  it,  even 
though  he  secures  a  less  valuable  feed.  There 
seems  to  be  no  special  rule  for  cutting.  Some  cut 
very  early;  some  very  late.  The  ideal  time,  as 
shown  by  chemical  analysis  of  the  crops,  is  when 
the  blooming  period  has  passed,  say  when  the  blooms 
begin  to  fall.  This  gives  a  nutritious  food  and  it 
is  more  appetizing.  The  yield  varies;  frequently 
hay  lands  in  which  timothy  predominates  have  been 
so  long  in  hay  that  a  small  yield  only  is  secured, 
often  as  little  as  a  half  to  one  ton  to  the  acre. 
Where  good  culture  is  given  the  meadow  lands, 
especially  those  in  rotations,  far  better  yields  are 
secured,  running  from  2  to  4  tons  to  the  acre ;  often 
cuttings  of  timothy  and  of  clover  vary  from  6  to  8 
tons  to  the  acre  in  a  single  year.  If  seed  is  de- 
sired, let  the  crop  stand  until  the  heads  are  brown 
and  the  seeds  fairly  ripe.  It  is  then  cut  with  a 
reaper  and  the  bundles  put  in  shocks.  After  cur- 
ing a  week  or  ten  days,  it  is  ready  for  threshing 
with  yields  varying  from  5  to  15  bushels  to  the 
acre,  depending  on  the  stand  and  the  vitality  of 
the  grass. 


242  FARM   CROPS 

TOBACCO.— A  plant  native  to  this  country  and 
consisting  of  many  varieties,  each  of  which  requires 
special  soil  preparation  and  culture.  Being  a  highly 
specialized  crop,  the  utmost  care  and  attention  is 
necessary  in  selecting  soil  and  in  cultivating  the 
crop.  Until  recent  years,  the  small  details  of  culture 
have  been  left  unattended,  thereby  lessening  the  re- 
turns in  production.  When  tobacco  sells  at  a  normal 
price,  on  the  same  basis  as  other  crops  of  the  farm, 
none  gives  a  larger  profit  to  the  acre,  especially 
when  the  details  of  culture  and  of  curing  are  not 
neglected. 

Unlike  other  farm  crops,  tobacco  requires  much 
devotion  at  first  to  get  the  crop  started.  A  seed 
bed  is  necessary  in  which  to  start  the  plants  from 
which  they  are  later  removed  and  transplanted  in 
the  field.  The  old  method  in  the  South  was  to  cut 
a  clearing  in  the  woods  near  a  small  stream;  a 
southern  exposure  is  preferred.  This  land  is  spaded 
in  the  fall,  wood  is  burned  over  it  so  as  to  put  it  in 
good  condition  and  to  fertilize  the  bed.  Many 
growers  cover  the  selected  seed  bed  during  the  win- 
ter with  leaves  and  manure  so  as  to  keep  it  from 
freezing.  In  the  spring  this  top  dressing  is  re- 
moved, a  liberal  application  of  cottonseed  meal 
or  some  nitrogenous  fertilizer  is  applied  and  raked 
in,  leaving  the  soil  in  mellow,  fine  and  compact 
condition — just  the  condition  that  the  tiny  seeds 
require  for  their  best  germination  and  growth.  It 
takes  from  the  time  of  planting  in  the  seed  bed, 
until  ready  for  transplanting,  many  weeks.  To 
shorten  this  period  many  farmers  germinate  the 
seed  before  sowing  in  the  seed  bed.  They  moisten 
the  seed  and  place  it  in  a  medium  like  apple  tree 
punk  or  cocoanut  fiber  made  soft  with  warm  water. 


TOBACCO 


243 


The  temperature  is  kept  around  70  to  75  degrees. 
When  the  seed  begins  to  germinate  it  is  mixed  with 
fine  ashes  and  sown  broadcast  on  the  beds  at  the 
rate  of  a  teaspoonful  to  about  every  10  square 
yards.  The  seed  bed  is  now  left  to  itself  and  the 


TOBACCO 

In  topping  tobacco,  the  bud  is  broken  off  at  the  top  of  the 
stalk.  This  is  done  when  the  button  is  well  put  out.  By  this 
means,  the  leaves  grow  much  larger,  ripen  up  more  evenly,  and 
their  quality  and  appearance  are  much  improved. 

field  in  which  the  plants  are  later  to  be  transplanted 
is  put  in  shape. 

Unlike  other  field  crops,  tobacco  is  very  par- 
ticular about  the  soil  in  which  it  is  to  grow.  Hence 
only  a  small  part  of  any  farm  is  usually  available. 
The  land  should  be  plowed  deep,  and  harrowed  at 
least  once  a  week  until  transplanting  time.  From 


244  FARM    CROPS 

one  to  three  weeks  before  the  plants  are  set,  the 
rows  are  laid  out,  usually  3  to  3^  feet  apart.  The 
distance  between  the  rows  varies  with  the  different 
varieties  and  the  localities.  When  the  plants  are 
from  4  to  6  inches  high  in  the  seed  bed,  they  are 
ready  for  transplanting.  The  bed  is  thoroughly 
watered  so  as  to  prevent  injury  to  the  roots.  Pull- 
ing up  in  the  morning  is  a  good  practice  as  the 
leaves,  in  doing  so,  are  less  liable  to  be  injured. 
The  plants  are  now  packed  in  small  boxes  or  baskets 
with  the  roots  pressed  together,  the  same  as  with 
cabbage  or  sweet  potatoes.  These  are  covered  with 
a  damp  cloth  and  set  in  a  cool,  shady  place  until 
ready  to  be  set  out.  If  the  weather  is  warm  and 
clear,  planting  late  in  the  day  is  preferable,  but 
if  the  weather  is  dark  and  cloudy,  anytime  will  do. 
Transplanting  machines  are  now  replacing  hand 
planting. 

Cultivation. — In  ten  days  to  two  weeks  after  the 
plants  have  been  set  out,  it  is  advisable  to  start  cul- 
tivation. The  real  secret  of  growing  good  tobacco 
is  in  keeping  the  land  free  from  weeds  and  the  soil 
in  the  best  of  tilth.  Cultivation,  therefore,  should 
be  thorough  and  continuous;  and  shallow  cultiva- 
tion is  preferable  to  deep  cultivation.  Any  injury 
to  the  plant  roots  will  check  the  growth  and  thus 
affect  the  leaf.  Rapid  growth  gives  a  finer  leaf 
than  the  slow  growth.  This  is  one  reason  why  the 
soil  needs  to  be  fertile.  When  the  plant  begins  to 
bud,  horse  cultivation  should  cease. 

All  plants  excepting  those  that  are  to  be  kept  for 
seed  are  topped.  During  the  season,  the  suckers 
are  usually  removed  two  or  three  times.  If  the 
suckers  be  permitted  to  grow,  an  inferior  tobacco 
would  result.  Tobacco  raisers  should  make  it  a 


TOBACCO  245 

rule  to  select  seed  from  plants  having  few  suckers 
and  those  that  have  a  tendency  to  resist  all  dis- 
eases. The  flower  clusters  should  be  covered  in 
a  paper  bag  before  blossoming  so  as  to  prevent 
accidental  cross  fertilization.  As  the  plant  grows, 
these  bags  should  be  loosened  or  larger  ones  used 
so  as  to  avoid  any  injury  to  the  tops  of  plants  as 
they  grow  bigger.  After  the  flowers  that  are  to  be 
used  for  seed  purposes  are  fertilized,  the  bags  should 
be  removed  and  the  seed  allowed  to  mature  in 
the  open. 

Culture  Points  Summarized. — The  soil  should  be 
given  a  heavy  coat  of  barnyard  manure  in  the  fall, 
plowed  either  in  the  fall  or  early  spring,  and  har- 
rowed at  intervals  of  about  every  two  weeks.  This 
will  cause  most  of  the  weed  seeds  to  germinate  and 
give  the  farmer  ample  chance  to  kill  them  before 
he  plants  tobacco.  The  early  plowing  will,  if  har- 
rowed in  this  way,  absorb  all  the  spring  rain  and 
better  enable  the  plant  to  withstand  possible  drouth 
of  the  summer  months.  After  transplanting,  the 
ground  should  never  be  allowed  to  bake.  Cultivate 
after  every  shower,  preferably  with  a  drag-tooth 
cultivator.  This  will  leave  the  ground  fine  and  not 
lumpy  like  some  of  the  old-fashioned  cultivators. 
The  plant  should  be  in  the  highest  degree  of  health 
from  the  time  it  is  transplanted  until  harvested, 
and  this  can  be  accomplished  by  constantly  tilling 
the  soil  until  the  plants  are  so  large  they  will  not 
permit  a  horse  to  walk  between  the  rows,  but  care 
should  be  taken  not  to  go  too  close  to  the  plant 
when  it  has  attained  any  size.  Tobacco  should  be 
topped  just  as  it  is  beginning  to  flower.  It  should 
never  be  allowed  to  bloom.  Conditions  of  weather 
and  climate  determine  the  length  of  time  a  plant 


246  FARM    CROPS 

should  stand  from  time  of  topping  until  harvested. 
Generally  this  is  about  18  to  20  days.  In  very 
warm  growing  weather  16  to  18  days  will  suffice. 
No  rule  can  be  used  for  this.  Experience  is  prac- 
tically necessary  to  judge  ripe  tobacco. 

When  to  Harvest. — It  is  best,  especially  in  dry 
seasons,  to  harvest  the  tobacco  before  it  is  too  ripe. 
If  the  rain  should  come  to  freshen  the  plants,  and 
start  them  growing  let  them  stand  until  they  are 
matured,  otherwise  harvest  the  tobacco  before  it 
starts  to  fire  up  in  the  field.  Much  has  been  said 
during  the  past  few  years  concerning  the  harvest- 
ing of  tobacco  by  the  priming  method.  This  is  to 
pluck  the  leaves  as  they  become  nearly  ripe,  in- 
stead of  waiting  to  cut  the  whole  stalk.  Some 
have  made  a  success  of  it  and  others  have  not.  The 
principal  drawback  to  the  method  is  the  little 
knowledge  we  have  of  the  proper  stage  of  ripeness 
tobacco  should  acquire  to  be  in  its  prime  for  har- 
vesting in  order  to  make  the  best  quality  of  goods 
possible. 

The  main  point  is  not  to  delay  the  harvesting 
until  the  tobacco  is  too  ripe;  better  by  far  have 
it  a  little  on  the  green  side  of  the  line.  As  soon 
as  the  leaves  are  matured;  that  is,  have  their 
growth,  they  should  be  harvested.  The  longer  a 
leaf  stays  on  the  stalk  after  it  has  its  growth,  up  to 
the  time  it  starts  to  fire,  the  more  solid  matter  it 
contains.  If  the  leaf  so  loaded  with  solid  material 
is  cured  on  the  stalk,  a  part  of  the  solid  material  in 
the  leaf  is  made  soluble  during  the  curing  process 
and  transposed  into  the  stalk,  thus  benefiting  the 
leaf;  if  the  leaf  is  primed  in  the  field  this  source  of 
outlet  for  the  solid  material  is  cut  off  and  the  leaf 
cures  down  thick  and  boardy,  instead  of  thin  and 


TURNIPS 


247 


elastic,  as  it  does  when  harvested  as  soon  as  it  has 
obtained  its  growth. 

TURNIPS. — The  turnip  is  of  many  varieties. 
They  are  sometimes  called  fall  turnips,  because 
they  are  more  commonly  fed  in  the  autumn,  whereas 
the  Swedish  varieties  are  more  commonly  fed  at  a 
later  period.  They  are  characterized  by  differences 
in  the  size,  shape  and  color  of 
the  bulb,  and  by  the  habit  of 
growth  in  the  top.  Com- 
pared with  rutabagas  they 
are  flatter  in  shape,  they 
grow  more  quickly  and  more 
above  the  ground  and  are 
less  firm  in  flesh,  hence  they 
cannot  be  kept  so  long  when 
harvested.  They  are  more 
frequently  grown  to  provide 
forage  than  rutabagas,  be- 
cause of  their  quick-growing 
properties,  and  because  it 
would  not  be  so  remunera- 
tive to  harvest  a  crop  that 

keeps  but  for  a  short  time.  gggg:  growinff  in"this 
Sometimes  they  are  raised 

for  forage  by  sowing  the  seed  in  drills  and  cul- 
tivating the  plants,  but  more  frequently  they  are 
sown  for  this  purpose  in  the  grain  fields.  They 
furnish  forage  for  all  farm  animals,  but  are  best 
adapted  to  sheep  and  swine.  To  provide  forage 
they  are  commonly  sown  with  a  winter  grain  crop, 
as  wheat  or  rye ;  or  with  a  spring  grain  crop,  as 
wheat,  oats  or  barley.  But  they  should  not  ordina- 
rily be  sown  with  a  grain  crop  that  has  also  been 
sown  with  grass  seeds,  for  the  pasturing  in  the 


TURNIP 

The  turnip  is  the  fa- 
vorite root  of  sheep.  Its 
use  as  a  field  crop  is 


248  FARM    CROPS 

autumn  would  very  probably  prove  hurtful  to  the 
young  grass.  With  a  winter  crop  they  should  be 
sown  early,  so  that  it  will  not  too  much  shade  the 
plants  while  they  are  young  and  tender.  With  a 
spring  crop  they  should  usually  be  sown  at  the 
same  time  as  the  grain,  but  may  be  sown  later. 

From  I  to  2  pounds  of  seed  will  usually  prove 
sufficient  to  sow  to  an  acre.  On  winter  grain  crops 
the  seed  will  have  to  be  broadcasted.  It  should 
then  be  covered  with  a  harrow.  The  harrowing  will 
also  be  helpful  to  the  grain  when  it  is  judiciously 
done.  On  spring  grain  it  may  be  sown  with  the 
grass-seeder  attachment  of  the  grain  drill  when  it 
has  one,  and  except  on  stiff  soils  the  seed  should  fall 
before  the  drill  tubes.  When  the  seed  is  thus 
dropped  before  the  drill  tubes  it  will  be  sufficiently 
covered.  When  it  is  sown  just  after  the  grain  it 
will,  in  nearly  all  instances,  be  necessary  to  cover 
it  with  the  harrow,  except  on  lumpy  or  cloddy  soils. 
On  these  the  roller  ought  to  be  used  rather  than  the 
harrow. 

Of  the  various  kinds  of  spring  grain,  barley 
makes  the  best  nurse  crop  for  turnips,  be  :ause  of 
the  less  dense  growth  which  it  produces,  and  be- 
cause of  its  early  removal.  Oats  is  the  most  un- 
suitable as  a  nurse  crop  for  reasons  just  the  op- 
posite. 

The  value  of  the  turnip  crop  for  forage  will  de- 
pend much  on  the  character  of  the  season  and  soil. 
In  any  case,  the  turnips  are  not  likely  to  grow  so 
as  to  hinder  growth  in  the  grain  crop.  But  under 
favorable  conditions  they  will  come  on  after  the 
crop  is  harvested  and  will  produce  an  excellent 
growth  of  top  and  root.  In  very  dry  seasons  they 
may  not  give  any  return,  but  in  turnip-growing 


VELVET  BEAN 


249 


sections  it  is  seldom,  indeed,  that  the  crop  will  not 
be  found  worth  more  than  the  seed  and  the  cost 
of  sowing  it. 

The  sheep  or  other  live  stock  that  are  to  be  pas- 
tured on  the  turnips  may  be  allowed  freedom  of 
access  to  other  grass  pasture ; 
the  outcome  will  be  still  fur- 
ther satisfactory  for  the  dan- 
ger of  an  unduly  lax  condition 
of  the  bowels  is  less  likely  to 
occur.  The  pasturing  should 
be  completed  before  the 
weather  becomes  really  cold, 
for  turnips  freeze  much  more 
easily  than  rutabagas,  and 
when  hard  frozen  they  should 
not  be  eaten  by  the  stock. 

VELVET  BEAN.— A  twin- 
ing plant  important  as  a  cover 
crop  and  for  its  value  as  a 
green  manure.  It  gets  its 


VELVET   BEAN 


This  legume  grows 
from  10  to  50  feet  in 
length.  Its  flowers  are 

name  from  the  velvety  condi-    &nucl™th".to£  Thl 
tion    of    the    pods    and    looks    %& 
much  like  pole  lima  beans.    It 


requires  a  long  growing  Season,     and  muddled  seed.    The 
1    .  .         ,  ,      °  &  '     buds  are  covered  with 

considerable  moisture  and  a  velvety  down  which 
much  warm  weather.  For  f  !££  the  name  to  the 
these  reasons  it  is  best  adapted 
to  the  Southern  states,  and  there  it  reaches  its  maxi- 
mum growth.  It  is  not  very  particular  about  the 
soil  allotted  it,  but  does  its  best  on  fairly  well- 
drained  soils  that  are  fairly  fertile,  but  it  is  all  right 
for  bringing  up  old  lands.  Being  a  legume  in  most 
cases  it  can  supply  its  own  nitrogen,  but  in  poor 
soils  potassium  and  phosphorus  should  be  supplied. 


25O  FARM  CROPS 

It  is  planted  in  rows  about  4  feet  apart  with  the 
plants  2  or  3  feet  apart  in  rows.  About  4  quarts  of 
seed  to  the  acre  is  the  customary  seeding.  As  its 
best  work  is  to  build  up  the  soil  it  makes  an  excel- 
lent crop  to  precede  corn  or  cotton.  Sometimes 
corn  and  velvet  beans  are  planted  together.  A  few 
cultivations  should  be  given  the  crop  after  planting 
to  keep  the  weeds  down  and  to  conserve  the  mois- 
ture. The  vines  grow  rapidly,  and  soon  shade  the 
ground  and  smother  out  weeds,  but  the  cultivation 
makes  the  soil  more  agreeable  to  the  crop. 

In  harvesting  the  mowing  machine  is  best.  The 
tangled  condition  of  the  crop  and  its  immensity 
make  it  difficult  to  cure.  It  is  cured  very  much 
like  cowpea  hay  or  clover  hay,  only  it  is  many 
times  more  troublesome.  These  curing  difficulties 
lead  most  people  to  graze  the  crop  with  cattle  and 
hogs  and  to  plow  the  wasted  part  under  for  the  soil 
improvement  effect.  If  cured  as  hay,  from  3  to  4 
tons  are  ordinarily  secured  from  each  acre.  An 
average  yield  of  seed  is  about  35  bushels.  As  a 
stock  food  the  velvet  bean  stands  high.  The  pro- 
tein content  is  large.  When  fed  carbonaceous  feeds 
like  corn,  cassava  and  bulky  foods  should  be  pro- 
vided also.  Its  best  use  is  as  a  cover  crop  and  as 
a  soil  renovator.  In  regions  where  it  can  be  grown 
it  has  few  equals  and  no  superiors. 

VELVET  GRASS.— Often  called  a  weed,  this 
plant  is  used  for  pasture  and  hay  along  the  Pacific 
coast.  It  flowers  early  in  the  spring  and  attains 
a  height  of  from  20  to  30  inches.  As  a  forage  it  is 
not  very  appetizing,  but  is  nutritious.  It  is  a  ready 
grower,  preferring  soils  possessed  of  considerable 
organic  matter.  In  seeding  about  20  pounds  are 
required  to  the  acre  and  the  soil  should  be  prepared 


VELVET  GRASS  25! 

as  for  other  small  grass  seeds.  Velvet  grass  is  not 
a  popular  plant  and  will  never  replace  any  of  the 
well-known  grasses  now  commonly  used  for  mead- 
ows and  pastures. 


VELVET  GRASS 

VETCHES.— These  plants  sometimes  called 
tares  are  relished  by  live  stock  of  all  kinds.  They 
are  excellent  for  milk  production  and  their  fatten- 
ing properties  are  of  a  high  order.  They  have 
special  adaptation  for  being  grown  along  with  other 
grains  to  provide  soiling  food  and  they  may  be  made 
to  render  excellent  service  in  providing  pasture  for 
sheep  and  swine.  When  grown  for  hay  vetches 
should  be  sown  with  some  cereal  grain  to  sustain 
them.  Not  only  are  they  good  food,  but  they  be- 
long to  the  legume  family  and  are  good  land  reno- 
vators. For  this  reason  they  are  excellent  to  follow 


252 


FARM    CROPS 


cereal  crops.  They  grow  splendidly  on  overturned 
sod  land.  Winter  vetch  may  be  made  to  follow  a 
crop  that  has  been  harvested  in  the  summer  or  fall. 
After  the  vetch  crop  has  been  harvested  the  follow- 
ing spring  the  summer  crop  should  succeed  it. 

Vetches  flourish  best 
in  moist  clay  loam  soils 
of  free  working  texture. 
They  will  grow  most 
satisfactorily  in  rich 
soils  and  will  do  as  well 
in  poor  soils  as  an  ordi- 
nary crop.  The  spring 
vetch  should  be  sown  for 
forage  as  early  as  the 
ground  is  dry  enough  to 
be  worked  without  in- 
jury. The  winter  vetch 
ought  to  be  sown  long 
before  winter  to  enable 
it  to  become  firmly  es- 
tablished that  it  may 
the  better  withstand  the 
rigors  of  winter.  There 
should  be  considerable 
moisture  in  the  soil  to 
sprout  the  seed,  otherwise  it  will  lay  unsprouted  in 
the  ground.  The  seed  may  be  broadcasted,  but  is 
better  sown  with  a  grain  drill  either  when  sown 
alone  or  along  with  other  seeds.  It  should  be  buried 
about  as  deeply  as  cereals.  The  hay  of  the  common 
vetch  is  about  as  nutritious  as  clover  and  is  relished 
even  more.  On  account  of  the  high  value  of  the 
seed  it  is  never  fed  to  live  stock,  although  it  is  ex- 
cellent food. 


HAIRY  VETCH 
Known  also  as  sand  vetch. 
It  is  a  legume  and  a  great  soil 
improver.  It  does  well  with 
wheat,  rye  or  oats  which  fur- 
nish support  for  the  vines  and 
keep  the  forage  off  the  ground. 
It  may  be  used  for  green  for- 
age, for  hay,  for  pasture,  or  it 
may  be  turned  under  for  green 
manure. 


WHEAT  253 

WHEAT.— This  crop  ranks  third  in  the  United 
States.  It  grows  in  cool,  temperate  and  warm 
climates  and  in  many  kinds  of  soil.  It  does  best 
in  clay  loam  and  poorest  in  sandy  soil.  The  hard 
water-soaked  lands  will  not  grow  wheat  with  profit 
to  the  farmer.  For  this  reason,  where  good  wheat 
production  is  desired,  the  soil  must  be  well  drained 
and  in  good  physical  condition — that  is  the  soil 
must  be  open,  crumbly  and  mellow. 

Clay  soils  that  are  hard  and  lifeless  can  be  made 
valuable  for  wheat  production  by  covering  the  sur- 
face with  manure,  by  good  tilling  and  by  a  thorough 
system  of  crop  rotation.  Cowpeas  make  a  most 
valuable  crop  to  precede  wheat,  for  in  growing  the 
atmospheric  nitrogen  is  added  to  the  soil,  their 
roots  loosen  the  root  bed,  thereby  admitting  a  free 
circulation  of  air  and  add  humus  to  the  soil.  More- 
over, the  cowpea  leaves  the  soil  in  a  compact  con- 
dition so  much  desired  in  wheat  production.  One 
may  secure  a  good  seed  bed  after  cotton,  potatoes 
and  corn  as  well  as  after  peas.  These  are  summer 
cultivated  crops  and  the  clean  culture  that  has 
been  given  renders  the  top  soil  mellow  and  the 
under  soil  firm  and  compact.  They  are  not  so 
good,  however,  as  cowpeas,  since  they  add  no  at- 
mospheric nitrogen  to  the  soil,  as  all  the  legumes  do. 

How  Deep  to  Sow. — Several  things  enter  into 
the  depth  of  sowing.  The  soil  has  something  to 
do  with  it  as  well  as  the  moisture;  and  then  the 
levelness  and  the  firmness  of  the  seed  bed  must  be 
considered  also.  A  sandy  soil  will  give  better  re- 
sults from  deep  seeding  than  a  clay  soil.  Then, 
too,  the  dry  soil  will  stand  deeper  sowing  than  the 
wet  soil.  If  the  season  is  dry,  a  greater  depth 
should  be  given  the  seed  than  if  it  is  a  season  of 


254 


WHEAT  255 

continuous  rainfall  more  or  less.  The  depth  varies 
all  the  way  from  I  to  3  inches,  but  a  practice 
usually  followed  by  the  farmers  is  to  sow  about 
I  inch  in  depth,  giving  the  seed  this  amount  of 
moist  soil  for  covering.  Often  the  wheat  field  is 
cloddy  and  rough,  and  in  cases  of  this  kind  a  greater 
depth  is  desirable,  not  only  to  secure  better  ger- 
mination, but  also  to  give  better  covering. 

When  corn  and  potatoes  are  followed  by  wheat, 
a  good  depth  is  usually  secured  providing  the  disk- 
harrow  has  been  run  over  once  or  twice  previous 
to  seeding.  The  potato  bed  ought  always  to  pro- 
vide an  ideal  seed  bed.  Often  in  corn  land  the 
weeds  and  hard  surfaces  make  the  bed  unfit  to 
start  with,  and  too  much  seeding  is  done  on  this 
kind  of  land.  Before  seeding  in  cases  of  this  nature 
a  disking  or  double  disking  and  even  a  cross  disk- 
ing is  advisable.  So  given  the  grower  is  reason- 
ably certain  that  the  seed  will  be  put  deep  enough 
in  the  soil  to  secure  proper  germination  and  to  get 
the  plant  going  rightly  that  it  may  pass  through 
the  winter  without  danger  or  injury.  In  case  the 
soil  is  mellow,  and  loose,  and  the  season  more  or 
less  dry,  a  good  rolling  often  will  help  out  very 
much  to  start  germination.  If  the  rolling  is  done 
after  seeding  just  as  soon  as  the  moisture  begins  to 
leave  the  soil  run  the  peg-tooth  harrow  over  the 
ground.  This  will  make  a  mulch,  the  moisture  in 
the  soil  will  be  held  and  the  crop  will  push  vigor- 
ously forward. 

Fertilizing  Wheat  Lands. — Practically  every 
form  of  fertilizer  is  applied  to  wheat  lands.  Some 
like  raw  bone  meal,  tankage  and  basic  slag  as  car- 
riers of  phosphoric  acid,  because  they  feel  these 


256  FARM    CROPS 

materials  are  best  for  the  grass  crops  that  follow. 
Nitrate  of  soda  as  a  source  of  nitrogen  is  excellent, 
but  the  best  time  for  adding  it  is  in  the  spring  when 
vigorous  growth  will  be  secured  in  case  the  crop 
has  gone  through  the  winter  poorly.  When 
nitrate  of  soda  is  used  in  the  fall,  it  is  usually  mixed 


WHEAT   HEADER 

In  some  wheat  districts  the  heads  only  are  clipped  off. 
These  heads  are  carried  by  means  of  an  elevator  attached  to 
the  machine  to  the  header  boxes  or  wagons  that  travel  along 
with  the  machine.  When  one  wagon  box  is  filled  another  re- 
places it.  The  detached  heads  are  hauled  to  the  storage  place 
and  stacked  until  threshing  time.  By  using  the  header  only  a 
small  part  of  the  straw  needs  to  be  handled. 

with  other  fertilizing  materials.     Muriate  of  potash 
is  perhaps  the  cheapest  source  of  potassium. 

Whether  to  use  factory  mixed  goods  or  complete 
fertilizers  will  depend  upon  circumstances.  Some 
farmers  have  already  tested  their  lands  and  know 
whether  a  complete  fertilizer  is  needed  or  not.  If 
wheat  follows  cowpeas  or  clover  or  any  of  the 
legumes,  then  it  is  certainly  unnecessary  to  go  to 
the  expense  of  buying  costly  nitrogen  when  there 
is  in  all  likelihood  an  abundance  in  the  soil  already. 
Then,  too,  some  wheat  soils  are  deficient  in  phos- 
phorus, but  possess  an  abundance  of  potassium. 
There  is  no  need  in  this  case  of  adding  the  potas- 
sium. If  other  lands  are  deficient  in  potassium  but 


WHEAT  257 

relatively  strong  in  phosphorus  the  latter  can  DC 
omitted  from  the  fertilizer  mixture.  The  wheat 
grower  must  make  a  study  of  the  soil  and  ascer- 
tain what  elements  are  lacking  in  the  soil  and  what 
carriers  of  the  lacking  ones  are  the  best  for  sup- 
plying the  deficiency. 

Just  how  much  fertilizer  shall  be  used  to  the 
acre  will  depend  also  upon  circumstances.  In  gen- 
eral, on  average  lands,  from  15  to  20  pounds  each 
of  ammonia  and  potassium  and  from  25  to  50 
pounds  of  phosphorus  are  desired.  These  amounts 
can  be  obtained  by  adding  from  200  to  400  pounds 
of  a  commercial  fertilizer  containing  about  4  per 
cent  ammonia,  12  per  cent  of  available  phosphorus 
and  4  per  cent  of  potassium.  Many  grades  are  on 
the  market  having  analyses  very  similar  to  this 
and  ordinarily  can  be  obtained.  It  is  advisable  to 
add  a  reasonable  quantity  to  the  acre.  Fertilizers 
pay  best  on  lands  well  prepared.  This  should  be  more 
generally  recognized  than  it  is.  Two  methods  of 
applying  fertilizers  are  in  vogue:  To  broadcast 
just  before  the  seed  drill;  and  in  connection  with 
seeding,  the  fertilizer  attachment  being  attached 
to  the  seed  drill.  The  latter  method  is  most  com- 
mon because  the  expense  is  less. 

Liming  wheat  land  is  good  practice  done  judi- 
ciously. It  helps  the  land,  but  if  vegetable  matter 
is  not  added  from  time  to  time  soil  humus  will  dis- 
appear and  the  land  will  suffer.  All  the  way  from 
500  to  2,000  pounds  may  be  added  to  the  acre.  The 
lime  can  be  added  by  means  of  a  lime  distributer, 
or  it  can  be  thrown  out  in  piles  in  the  field  and  after 
slaking  be  scattered  over  the  field  with  shovel, 
giving  as  even  distribution  as  possible.  It  is  ad- 
visable to  apply  the  lime  some  days  previous  to 


258  FARM    CROPS 

seeding  and  to  harrow  the  lime  in  and  not  to  allow 
it  to  remain  on  top  of  the  soil  for  any  length  of 
time.  Many  lime  users  make  a  mistake  in  scattering 
the  lime  broadcast,  allowing  it  to  be  carried  down 
into  the  soil  by  rains.  To  get  the  full  effect,  har- 
row the  lime  into  the  soil. 

Wheat  should  be  grown  in  a  rotation  with  other 
crops,  and  two  of  the  best  in  such  rotations  are 
corn  and  clover.  For  instance,  let  corn  follow 
clover;  on  the  clover  sod  scatter  the  manure  to  be 
plowed  under  the  corn ;  and  following  the  corn 
should  come  the  wheat.  Some  use  oats  after  corn 
and  wheat  after  oats.  In  this  case,  as  soon  after 
oat  harvesting  as  possible,  plow  the  land  that  a 
good  seed  bed  may  be  had  for  the  wheat  later  on. 
If  the  stable  manure  is  added  to  the  corn  lands, 
then  fertilizers  will  be  more  largely  resorted  to  on 
the  wheat  lands.  This  plan  is  splendid  and  is  used 
by  many  of  the  best  wheat  growers  in  sections 
where  diversified  farming  has  become  established. 

The  Varieties  Are  Many. — Four  types  of 
whea"t  are  recognized  in  the  markets  of  the 
country.  These  types  are  the  following:  Soft 
winter  wheat;  hard  winter  wheat;  hard  spring 
wheat  and  white  wheat.  Included  in  the 
stock  winter  varieties  are  the  Valley,  Nigger, 
Mediterranean,  Rudy,  Fulcaster,  Early  Genessee 
Giant,  Mealy,  Early  Ripe,  Poole,  Fultz,  Harvest 
King  and  Dawson's  Golden  Chaff.  The  Fultz 
variety  is-  probably  more  widely  grown  in  the 
United  States  than  any  other.  Among  the  hard  win- 
ter varieties  are  Zimmerman,  Turkey  andTasmanian 
Red.  Fife  and  Blue  Stem  are  the  two  leading 
types  of  hard  spring  wheat.  Both  are  beardless 
and  are  grown  in  that  immense  wheat  belt  extend- 


WHEAT  259 

ing  from  Kansas  north  to  Minnesota  and  the 
Dakotas.  The  varieties  most  popular  on  the  Pacific 
coast  are  Australian,  Oregon  Red  Chaff,  Blue  Stem, 
White  Winter  and  Little  Club. 

In  selecting  a  variety,  it  is  well  to  try  out  those 
that  do  best  near  home  and  to  study  how  they  have 
done  at  the  experiment  station.  By  so  acting  you 
can  choose  a  variety  that  will  best  serve  you  as  a 
standby.  If  satisfied  with  your  choice,  improve  it 
by  selecting  the  seed  wheat  each  year,  using  the 
seed  plot  to  the  full  limit  that  the  choicest  heads 
and  choicest  grains  may  be  saved  to  further  im- 
prove the  wheat  stock. 

Preparing  the  Land. — One  of  the  real  secrets  of 
successful  winter  wheat  culture  is  in  this  early 
preparation  of  the  soil.  Farmers  have  learned  that 
ground  for  wheat  should  be  plowed  as  soon  as  the 
previous  crop  has  been  removed  and  allowed  to  be- 
come compact  before  seeding  time.  It  will  not  do,  of 
course,  to  plow  the  ground  and  give  it  no  further  at- 
tention. It  must  be  harrowed  or  disked  often  enough 
to  keep  down  weeds  and  to  keep  the  upper  layers 
pulverized,  forming  a  dust  mulch  which  prevents 
the  escape  of  valuable  soil  moisture.  Where  the 
ground  is  full  of  weed  seed,  this  is  a  most  excellent 
method  of  getting  rid  of  these  pests.  The  weed 
crop  is  prevented  from  seeding  and  the  seed  in  the 
ground  from  last  year  germinates  and  the  young 
plants  are  killed.  Even  such  persistent  perennials 
as  cockle-burr,  velvet  leaf  and  jimson  weed  can 
finally  be  controlled.  It  may  require  two  or  three 
years  of  such  treatment  to  get  rid  of  the  worst 
pests,  but  persistence  will  always  result  in  success. 

The  ground  for  wheat  should  be  carefully  plowed ; 
in  most  sections  5  to  7  inches  deep.  Every  bit  of 


260  FARM    CROPS 

the  ground  must  be  stirred  so  that  when  drilling  is 
done  the  seed  will  be  covered  evenly.  The  sulky 
plows  or  the  modern  gangs  are  best,  as  they  do  good 
work  and  completely  cover  all  trash  which  may  be 
on  the  surface.  If  plowing  must  be  delayed  until 
late  on  account  of  dry  weather,  or  the  fact  that  the 
crops  growing  on  the  land  cannot  be  removed  until 
just  before  seeding  time,  compacting  must  be  done 
in  some  way.  This  is  best  accomplished  by  the  use 
of  a  roller,  drag,  disk,  smoothing  harrow  or  some 
such  implement.  Neglect  of  this  brings  more  poor 
wheat  than  any  other  one  thing.  Going  over  the 
ground  two  or  three  times  is  not  sufficient.  The 
work  must  be  continued  and,  in  some  cases,  the 
ground  will  have  to  be  gone  over  four  or  five  times. 
Ideal  Seed  Bed  for  Wheat.— An  ideal  seed  bed 
for  wheat  or  other  small  seeds  should  not  be  mellow 
or  loose  to  too  great  a  depth,  but  rather  the  soil 
should  be  mellow  and  well  pulverized  only  about 
as  deep  as  the  seed  is  planted.  Below  that  depth 
the  soil  should  be  firm  and  well  settled,  making  a 
good  connection  with  the  subsoil,  so  that  the  soil 
water  stored  in  the  subsoil  may  be  drawn  up  into 
the  surface  soil.  The  firm  soil  below  the  seed,  well 
connected  with  the  subsoil,  supplies  moisture  to 
the  germinating  seed  and  the  young  plantlet,  while 
the  mellow  soil  above  the  seed  allows  sufficient 
circulation  of  air  to  supply  oxygen  and  favors  the 
warming  of  the  soil,  gathering  the  heat  of  the  sun- 
shine during  the  day  and  acting  as  a  blanket  to 
conserve  the  soil  heat,  maintaining  a  more  uniform 
temperature  of  the  soil  during  the  night.  The 
mellow  soil  mulch  above  the  seed  conserves  the 
soil  moisture,  acting  as  a  mulch  to  keep  the  moisture 
from  reaching  the  surface,  where  it  would  be 


WHEAT  26l 

rapidly  lost  by  evaporation.  The  same  condition 
favors  the  growth  of  the  young  shoots  upward  into 
the  air  and  sunshine. 

The  too  loose,  deep  seed  bed  is  almost  wholly 
dependent  upon  sufficient  rains  to  germinate  the 
seed  and  start  the  young  plants.  In  such  a  seed 
bed  drouth  is  very  apt  to  injure  the  plants,  because 
of  the  rapid  drying  out  of  the  soil  to  the  depth  of 
the  plowing.  In  the  loose  seed  bed  the  wheat  is 
not  only  apt  to  burn  out  in  summer,  but  it  is  also 
more  apt  to  freeze  out  in  winter,  than  wheat  grown 
in  the  ideal  seed  bed  as  here  described. 

How  Much  Seed  to  Sow. — The  amount  of  seed  to 
the  acre  varies  a  little  with  the  soil  and  the  climate. 
As  a  rule,  five  pecks  of  well-cleaned  seed  will  give 
a  good  stand  and  produce  the  maximum  yield.  If 
the  seed  is  very  expensive,  one  bushel  will  fre- 
quently answer.  It  is  better,  however,  to  be  on  the 
safe  side  and  sow  a  little  more  than  recommended 
rather  than  less.  There  are  so  many  varieties  that  no 
one  variety  can  be  recommended  for  all  sections  of 
the  wheat  belt.  The  best  guide  is  to  get  from  the 
experiment  station  the  kinds  that  have  done  best  in 
the  station  tests.  Then  after  consulting  with  the 
best  wheat  growers  in  your  neighborhood,  decide 
upon  the  kind.  A  good  variety  is  always  desirable, 
but  do  not  forget  that  even  the  best  seed  will  not 
do  well  on  a  poor  seed  bed. 

Putting  in  the  Seed. — Drilling  is,  of  course,  the 
only  method  to  be  recommended.  The  kind  of  a 
drill  is  another  question.  The  modern  disk  drills 
have  been  so  satisfactory  that  they  can  be  recom- 
mended without  hesitancy.  The  old-fashioned  hoe 
drill  is  still  used  very  widely  and  is  a  good  imple- 
ment. The  press  drill  during  a  dry  season  is  ex- 


262  FARM    CROPS 

ceedingly  satisfactory,  but  its  heavy  draft  and  the 
fact  that  it  is  not  available  in  many  neighborhoods, 
tend  to  keep  it  back.  A  number  of  the  manufac- 
turers of  drills  now  make  a  combination  implement, 
by  means  of  which  the  press  wheels  may  be  used 
or  not,  depending  upon  the  condition  of  the  soil. 
This  is  a  little  more  expensive  than  the  average 
drill,  but  since  you  have  two  implements  in  one,  it 
can  be  purchased  with  profit. 

Saving  Grain  at  Harvest. — It  is  a  matter  of  small 
consequence  if  grain  in  the  corners  of  the  field  is 
wasted  or  if  the  binder  course  at  the  edge  of  the 
field  is  destroyed,  so  we  think — the  hogs  will  get  it. 
In  many  cases  this  is  true.  But  it  is  expensive 
feeding,  too  expensive  at  the  present  price  of  grain. 
And  the  loss  of  grain  in  the  shock  and  stack,  due  to 
mice,  rats  and  bad  weather,  is  much  greater  than 
the  loss  due  to  loss  in  the  field.  But  is  this  loss  all 
necessary?  Is  it  good  business  to  go  to  the  ex- 
pense of  raising  wheat  or  rye  or  oats,  and  then 
after  the  crop  has  matured  to  lose  anywhere  from 
5  to  15  per  cent  of  the  crop  by  bad  management  at 
harvest?  In  many  instances  not  only  has  the  en- 
tire crop  in  the  shock  or  stack  been  damaged,  but  a 
large  amount,  often  as  much  as  25  per  cent  of  the 
crop,  has  actually  been  destroyed.  Every  once  in 
a  while  seasons  are  bad  for  the  crops.  They  catch 
grain  growers  by  surprise  and  to  their  loss.  True 
as  this  may  be,  it  is  a  fact,  nevertheless,  that  many 
farmers,  big  and  little,  do  circumvent  the  loss  and 
damage.  They  do  it  by  wise  planning,  by  careful 
management  and  by  meeting  emergencies  as  they 
occur. 

Making  Shocks  to  Withstand  Rain. — There  is 
little  to  be  said  about  stacking  and  shocking  grain 


WHEAT  263 

in  the  field.  In  some  seasons  it  makes  little  dif- 
ference what  sort  of  shock  is  set  up,  or  whether  set 
up  at  all.  If  a  rainy  period  prevails  a  difference 
results,  and  a  big  difference.  The  plan  of  setting 
the  bundles  two  by  two,  without  caps,  is  a  bad 
custom  during  rainy  seasons.  The  heads  being 
wholly  exposed,  a  great  number  of  kernels  sprout, 
even  grow  if  the  showers  are  frequent  and  the 
weather  hot.  Wheat  shocked  in  this  manner  is 
often  practically  ruined.  Hasty  shocking  may  pass 
as  a  rule,  but  there  always  comes  a  time  when  the 
loss  is  a  severe  penalty. 

It  is  a  good  rule  to  set  the  shocks  carefully  with 
some  permanency  and  then  the  risk  of  loss  in  the 
field  will  be  much  less.  When  the  grain  is  fairly 
ripe,  two  sets  of  two  bundles  may  be  set  with  the 
tops  leaning  toward  the  center.  About  these  are 
set  other  bundles;  one  on  each  end  and  two  on 
each  side,  with  two  well-broken  and  flattened 
bundles  on  top  for  caps.  So  set,  the  shocks 
stand  well,  are  firm  and  plenty  of  ventilation 
is  possible  for  the  grain  and  straw  to  dry  out 
readily.  Thus  set,  with  caps  well  made  and  well 
placed,  long  periods  of  wet  weather  will  be  with- 
stood without  any  injury  to  the  grain. 

Good  Stack  for  Wheat.— The  custom  of  thresh- 
ing from  the  shock  has  been  spreading  for  years. 
It  has  its  advantages  and  disadvantages,  all  of 
which  each  grain  grower  knows  and  understands. 
The  general  art  of  stacking,  because  the  custom 
of  .stacking  is  now  not  so  universal,  has  become  lost 
in  some  sections,  and  only  the  most  indifferent 
makeshift  sorts  of  stacking  result  as  a  consequence. 
Many  stacks  leak  if  heavy  rains  continue.  The 
water  goes  down  into  the  stack  from  the  top,  or  is 


264  FARM    CROPS 

beaten  in  from  the  sides,  causing  the  grain  to 
sprout,  in  many  cases  to  rot,  and  in  all  cases  to  be 
severely  damaged.  Now  this  is  bad  and  the  evil 
should  be  corrected. 

The  method  in  stacking  wheat  or  oats  or  other 
small  grain  is  to  make  a  stack  that  will  not  take 
water.  Tile  shape  or  the  size  is  not  of  much  con- 
sequence. The  real  art  is  to  lay  the  bundles  so 
skillfully  that  the  rains  will  be  kept  out.  Two  gen- 
eral ideas  prevail  in  laying  the  bundles:  One  is 
to  start  at  the  center  and  work  from  the  center  to 
the  outer  edge ;  the  other  is  to  work  from  the  outer 
edge  to  the  center.  It  does  not  make  much  dif- 
ference which  is  followed,  providing  the  center  is 
kept  high  enough,  that  the  drain,  if  there  be  any, 
may  be  down  and  out. 

A  good,  old-tried  method  is  to  bring  the  stack  up 
to  some  4  or  5  feet  in  the  center;  lay  down  two  or 
three  bundles,  so  as  to  get  a  good  pitch  before 
working  the  outer  edge.  The  idea  from  now  on  is 
to  keep  the  center  high  and  the  outer  edge  low. 
The  outward  bundles  can  be  given  a  little  less  pitch 
than  those  further  in.  Do  not  try  to  have  the  bun- 
dles so  close  together  on  the  outer  edge  of  the 
stack;  give  them  plenty  of  room,  so  that  when  a 
stack  settles  the  outer  edge  will  settle  and  the  cen- 
ter remain  solid.  In  case  the  outer  edge  starts  to 
slip,  it  can  be  quickly  tied  by  working  at  the  center 
and  then  from  it  toward  the  edge.  By  so  doing  the 
slip  will  be  checked  at  once. 

Another  method  of  stacking  is  to  stand  the  bun- 
dles up  on  their  butts  in  the  center  of  the  stack. 
Press  the  bundles  inward  until  the  bottom  is  as 
large  as  needed,  when  the  bundles  should  be  laid 
down  with  the  butts  outward.  Now  a  course  on 


WHEAT  265 

the  outer  side  is  laid,  and  when  completed  another 
course  is  started  in  the  opposite  direction  with  the 
butts  laying  up  to  the  bands  Course  after  course 
now  follows  until  the  middle  is  reached  The 
inner  course  should  be  packed  very  closely,  so  as  to 
keep  the  middle  fuller  than  the  outside.  A  good 
stacker,  who  is  accustomed  to  the  work,  will  lay 
out  a  little  until  the  stack  is  as  large  as  needed. 
The  size  can  be  maintained  until  it  is  time  to  draw 
in  so  as  to  top  out.  It  is  especially  necessary  when 
this  drawing-in  work  has  started  to  have  the  center 
full,  which  must  be  maintained  all  the  time.  Keep 
the  center  higher  than  the  outside.  When  the  draw- 
in  is  started,  let  it  be  done  slowly  at  first. 

Small  grains  stacked  in  this  manner  will  save  the 
grain  about  as  well  as  if  stored  in  the  barn.  As  a 
last  thing,  I  like  to  cover  the  stack  with  old  hay  and 
then  to  weigh  this  down  with  hangers  made  of  ropes 
or  wires.  When  so  protected  it  is  just  about  im- 
possible for  rains  to  do  any  damage. 

Threshing  from  Shock  or  Stack. — The  strongest 
argument  against  threshing  from  the  shock  is  the 
fact  that  it  takes  the  whole  farming  force  of  the 
community  with  a  great  many  teams  to  get  the 
grain  to  the  machines.  If  the  farmer  pays  for  most 
of  this  large  force  of  helpers  by  working  back,  when 
his  neighbors  get  ready  to  thresh  it  will  take  him 
a  great  many  days  to  cancel  his  debt.  No  matter 
how  pressing  a  certain  piece  of  work  may  be  he  is 
obliged  to  break  right  off  and  assist  his  neighbor 
when  the  machine  gets  there.  Threshing  machines 
are  like  time  itself — they  wait  for  no  man.  A 
farmer  is  forced  to  thresh  in  his  turn  when  the 
machine  reaches  his  neighborhood,  or  he  may  have 
to  wait  a  long  while  before  it  comes  back  to  his 


266  FARM    CROPS 

place.  If  grain  is  well  stacked  a  farmer  can  be 
more  independent  and  choose  his  time  for  thresh- 
ing. But  if  not  well  stacked  it  is  desirable  to 
thresh  as  soon  as  possible,  for  if  heavy  rains  set  in 
much  of  the  grain  will  be  greatly  damaged. 

One  successful  way  to  thresh  from  the  shock  is 
for  ten  or  a  dozen  farmers  in  one  neighborhood  to 
organize  a  club,  get  a  machine  and  go  to  work  im- 
mediately, threshing  first  for  one  man,  then  an- 
other until  each  man  in  his  turn  has  been  served. 
In  this  way  help  is  paid  back  at  once  and  the  work 
is  over. 

Controlling  the  Hessian  Fly. — This  pest  causes 
annually  considerable  loss  in  the  wheat  fields.  Vari- 
ous remedies  for  its  suppression  have  been  sug- 
gested, but  none  of  them  is  wholly  satisfactory.  To 
be  effective,  burning  the  stubble  after  the  crop  has 
been  harvested  must  be  done  before  the  flies  emerge 
from  the  pupal  state.  In  case  this  plan  is  to  be 
adopted,  the  wheat  should  be  cut  quite  high,  so 
that  all  the  pupae  will  remain  in  the  stubble.  The 
objection  to  this  of  course,  is  that  some  of  the  in- 
sects have  been  permitted  to  mature.  Burning  the 
screenings  and  chaff  after  threshing  may  lessen  the 
number  to  some  extent.  Another  plan  is  to  turn 
under  the  stubble  after  the  grain  has  been  re- 
moved, plowing  to  a  depth  of  several  inches  and 
rolling  the  ground.  The  pupas  in  most  cases  will  be 
destroyed. 

The  food  supply  for  the  insects  during  late  sum- 
mer and  early  autumn  should  be  destroyed.  The 
flies  emerge  during  this  period,  and  if  the  volunteer 
grain  about  the  stack  and  in  the  field  is  not  present 
eggs  cannot  be  deposited.  Destroy  the  volunteer 
grain  by  plowing  or  pasturing.  Some  farmers 


WHEAT  267 

early  sow  strips  of  wheat  through  the  field.  The 
insects  as  soon  as  they  emerge  deposit  the  eggs 
in  these  grain  patches.  As  soon  as  the  pupae  have 
formed  the  growing  plants  can  be  turned  under  and 
the  flies  killed.  These  strips  should  be  sown  very 
early.  Possibly  the  best  way  of  all  is  late  sow- 
ing. Delay  the  seeding  until  the  adult  fly  has 
emerged  and  perished.  Of  course  the  flies  occa- 
sionally breed  very  late  in  the  season,  but  if  the 
farmers  will  watch  their  fields  they  will  very  often 
find  that  the  entire  brood  has  perished  before  it  is 
too  late  to  sow  wheat.  A  combination  of  methods 
is  probably  the  best.  If  the  weather  is  dry,  burn 
the  stubble  as  soon  as  the  grain  is  off.  If  it  is  wet 
plow  it  under,  following  with  a  roller,  and  as  soon 
as  any  volunteer  wheat  appears  turn  it  under.  The 
chaff  from  the  threshing  machine  should  be  burned. 
If  strips  of  winter  wheat  are  used  as  decoys,  they 
must  be  plowed  under  at  the  end  of  three  or  four 
weeks.  With  these  precautions  and  the  planting 
of  the  crop  at  the  latest  practicable  date,  the  ravages 
of  the  Hessian  fly  can  be  greatly  lessened. 

How  Flour  Is  Made. — The  wheat  is  first  cleaned, 
tempered,  tested  and,  if  approved  by  the  tester,  it 
is  ground  by  the  gradual  reduction  method,  which 
is  a  process  of  granulation  rather  than  pulveriza- 
tion, as  is  the  case  of  the  upper  and  nether  mill- 
stone. In  this  process  it  goes  through  six  dif- 
ferent sets  of  machines  called  breaks.  This  is  the 
roller-mill  process.  The  first  break  slightly  crushes 
the  wheat  kernel  when  it  goes  to  the  scalper  or 
sieve.  Here  the  middlings,  or  grits,  are  separated. 
The  residue  is  sent  to  another  break,  where  it  is 
crushed  still  more,  carried  to  the  scalper  again,  and 
more  middlings  sifted  out.  The  wheat  goes  through 


268  FARM    CROPS 

six  different  sets  of  breaks  ana  a  scalper  each  time, 
the  rolls  in  each  break  being  closer  and  closer  to- 
gether, and  the  middlings  obtained  in  each  instance 
being  finer  and  finer. 

This  gives  six  different  grades  in  size  of  particles. 
The  finest  and  purest  are  selected  for  the  best  grade 
of  flour,  run  through  purifiers,  where  impurities  are 
removed  by  suction  and  sifting.  Dirt  and  dust  are 
caught  in  a  dust  collector  made  of  flannel  tubes, 
when  the  residue  is  ground  into  flour,  which  is 
sometimes  spoken  of  as  bolting.  Something  like 
150  separations  are  made  from  the  time  the  wheat 
is  turned  into  the  hopper  until  it  comes  out  in  the 
sack  labeled  with  the  trade-mark  of  the  particular 
mill  grinding  it. 

WHITE  CLOVER.— This  little  perennial  is 
native  to  the  northeastern  United  States  and  to 
Europe,  but  has  been  so  long  cultivated  over  the 
southern  half  of  the  United  States  that  it  is  now 
thoroughly  established.  It  is  best  adapted  to 
rather  moist  soil,  but  will  grow  well  on  a  large 
variety  of  soils,  and  under  widely  different  climatic 
conditions.  The  seed  should  be  sown  in,  early 
spring.  During  the  spring  and  early  summer 
months,  this  clover  makes  its  best  growth.  During 
the  hottest  part  of  the  summer  it  remains  prac- 
tically stationary.  It  is  able,  however,  to  resist 
considerable  drouth,  although  in  the  southern 
states  it  often  disappears  entirely  during  a  period 
of  protracted  hot  weather,  only  to  reappear  again 
abundantly  when  the  conditions  become  favorable. 

It  is  commonly  used  in  this  country  for  pasture 
and  for  lawns;  always  in  combination  with  some 
other  crop.  It  is  ordinarily  sown  with  blue  grass, 
red  top  and  some  of  the  other  smaller  plants ;  more 


YELLOW    CLOVER  269 

so  than  the  other  clovers,  and  its  yield  is  always 
very  much  less.  For  lawn  and  pasture  purposes 
it  is  of  great  value  because  of  its  perennial  character 
and  its  creeping  habit,  which  enables  it  to  closely 
cover  the  soil  and  occupy  all  the  spaces  left  vacant 
by  other  plants.  It  furnishes  tender,  nutritious  pas- 
turage and  in  lawns  gives  a  close,  dark-green,  vel- 
vety growth.  It  flowers  and  fruits  abundantly 
wherever  it  grows. 

YELLOW  CLOVER.— This  plant  is  sometimes 
called  black  medic.  At  other  times  it  is  spoken  of 
as  trefoil,  but  this  term  is  not  sufficiently  specific. 
Nor  is  it  to  be  confounded  with  hop  clover,  although 
there  is  much  of  resemblance  between  the  two 
plants.  Yellow  clover  is  perennial  and  recumbent 
in  its  habit  of  growth.  It  does  not  make  sufficient 
growth  to  render  it  of  much  value  for  hay.  But  as 
a  pasture  plant  it  is,  to  some  extent  at  least,  deserv- 
ing of  a  place  in  our  agriculture.  It  bears  seeds 
profusely,  and  as  the  season  of  bloom  is  prolonged 
when  it  is  pastured,  this  plant  has  much  power  to 
reseed  itself  and  therefore  to  maintain  its  hold  upon 
land  where  it  has  been  grown. 

Yellow  clover  has  special  adaptation  for  soils  well 
supplied  with  lime.  On  such  soils  it  has  in  some 
localities  almost  assumed  the  character  of  a  weed. 
But  this  can  only  happen  in  rainy  climates.  It  will 
also  grow  in  gravelly  soils,  where  some  of  the  other 
varieties  of  clover  would  fail.  It  grows  freely  in 
several  of  the  Northern  states.  It  is  probable  that 
it  may  be  grown  with  more  or  less  success  in  all, 
or  nearly  all,  the  tillable  portions  of  the  United 
States.  Where  other  and  superior  kinds  of  clover 
will  grow  freely,  it  is  not  necessary  to  give  much 
attention  to  yellow  clover.  But  in  permanent  pas- 


270  FARM    CROPS 

tures,  even  among  superior  sorts,  it  has  a  place,  since 
it  comes  on  early  in  the  season  and  grows  vigor- 
ously, and  it  is  fine  and  leafy  when  young;  but  as 
summer  advances  it  becomes  woody  and  ceases  to 
grow.  As  a  pasture  plant  it  is  not  the  equal  of  white 
clover,  but  it  may  be  able  to  grow  in  some  situations 
where  white  clover  will  not  succeed. 

The  seed  of  yellow  clover  is  relatively  cheap, 
hence  to  add  I  or  2  pounds  of  the  seed  to  the 
acre  to  a  mixture  to  be  sown  for  permanent 
pasture  will  not  add  much  to  the  whole  cost 
of  the  seed.  When  sown  alone,  from  3  to  5  pounds 
of  seed  is  ample.  But  it  should  only  be 
thus  sown  to  provide  seed.  The  seed  may  be  sown 
by  hand  or  with  some  form  of  hand  seeder,  and 
covered  with  a  light  harrow  or  a  roller,  according 
to  the  character  of  the  soil.  When  not  sown  to 
provide  seed  it  ought  to  be  made  a  part  of  a  grass 
mixture  rather  than  the  sole  crop.  In  such  instances 
i  or  2  pounds  of  seed  to  the  acre  should  suffice. 


Index 


Page 

Alfalfa    95 

Alsike  clover 102 

Artichokes 103 

Bad  Drainage 7 

Barley 105 

Beans 107 

Beggar  Weed 44,  107 

Bermuda  Grass 108 

Blue  Grass 109 

Breeding  Up  Farm  Crops 89 

Broom   Corn 109 

Broom  Corn  Millet 113 

Buckwheat 113 

Bur   Clover .115 


Canada  Field  Peas. 

Carrots    

Cassava    .... 
Cattle  Feeds. 

Chufa 

Clover,  Alsike 

Club  Wheat 

Common  Millet 

Common  Red  Clover.  . 

Corn    

Corn,  Basis  for  Soiling. 
Corn,  Best  Silage  crop. 
Corn  Cultivator. 


. .  .  116 

.69,  116 

. . .  118 

..  .  44 

.  .  .  119 

...  102 

...  120 

...  120 

120 

.  .  .  121 

...  80 

...  70 

125 


Corn,  Field  Selection  of  Seed 127 

Corn  for  Summer 67 

Corn,  Hogging  off • 133 

Corn     Husking     from     Standing 

Stalks  133 

Corn  Improved  by  Selection 91 

Corn  Kernels 47 

Corn,  Putting  in  Shocks 131 

Corn  Shocking  by  Machinery.  ...  132 

Corn  Smut 87 

Cotton    136 

Cotton,  Helping  Cotton  Lands.  .  .  139 

Cotton,  Improving  Cotton 85 

Cottonseed  Meal 51 

Crimson  Clover 120 

Crop  Growing 1 

Crops  and  Food  Nutrients 57 

Crops  and  Line  of  Business 55 

Crops  for  Feeding 43 

Crops  for  Succulence 63 

Crops,  Preparing  for 25 

Cowpea  Fertilizer 13 

Cowpea  Hay 147 

Cowpea  Rack 145 

Cowpeas 143 

Cowpea   Shock 146 

Cultivate,  When  to 24 

Cultivation 38 


Page 

Cultivation,   Gentle   Art   of 23 

Dairy     Feeds,    In     Buying,    Get 

Protein 49 

Durum   Wheat 147 

Emmer 148 

Experiment  Station  at  Home ....      11 

Fanning  Mills 88 

Farm  Crops 95 

Feeding  Stuffs,  Home  Raised.  ...      46 

Fertilizers,  Function  of 8 

Field  Beans 149 

Field  Peas 150 

Flax    151 

Forage    Crops 54 

German    Millet 152 

Good  Silo,  Essentials  of 70 

Good  Soils  and  Good  Crops 4 

Grasses,  Preparation  of  Land  for     20 
Grasses,  Seeding  and  Feeding.  .  .      21 

Grasses,  The  Growing  of 19 

Grass  Seed  Sowing 22 

Hairy  Vetch 152 

Harrow,  When  to  Use 32 

Helping   Nature 5 

Hemp   .  : 152 

Hogging  off  Corn 133 

Hops 155 

Hungarian  Millet 156 

Inbreeding  of  Corn 94 

Indian    Corn 156 

Italian  Rye  Grass 156 

Japan  Clover 156 

Japanese  Millet 158 

Kafir  Corn 158 

Kentucky  Blue  Grass 160 

Legumes,  High  Importance  of  8,       9 
Legumes,  The  Work  They  Do.  ..      59 

Lespedeza    162 

Level  Culture 24 

Lupines    162 

Maize    162 

Mammoth  Clover 162 

Mangels 70,    163 

Meadow   Fescue 165 

Meadow  Foxtail 166 

Melilotus  Alba 166 

Millets 166 

Milo  Maize 169 

Moisture  and  Seed  Bed 29 

Muskmelons 170 

Nitrogen,  Storing  Without  Cost .  .       12 

Oat  Grass 170 

Oats 1 70 

Orchard  Grass 66,    178 

Pastures,  Good  Ones  Popular.  .  .      64 


271 


272 


INDEX 


Page 

Peanuts    179 

Pearl  Millet 182 

Perennial  Rye  Grass 182 

Plant  Breeding 84 

Plant  Breeding,  Keynote  of 85 

Plant  Improvement,  Laws  of 93 

Plants,  Varying  Need  of 17 

Plowing,  Early  Plowing 30 

Polish  Wheat 182 

Potatoes 183 

Potato  Yields  Increasing 10 

Poulard  Wheat 193 

Protein 46 

Protein,  Home  Production  of.  ...  56 

Protein,  Judgment  in  Purchase .  .  48 

Pumpkins 193 

Rape 194 

Rape  for  Supplementing  Pastures  65 

Red  Clover 197 

Red  Top 202 

Rescue   Grass 203 

Rice    204 

Root  Bed 7 

Root  Crops 68 

Roots,  Preserving  in  Pits 73 

Rotation  and  Stability 18 

Rotation  for  Soiling  Crops 81 

Rotations,  How  to  Help  Out ....  16 

Rutabagas 207 

Rye 209 

Rye  Grass 213 

Sanfoin 213 

Scarlet  Clover 214 

Seed  Bed 27 

Seed  Bed  and  Moisture 29 

Seed  Bed  Ideal  for  Small  Seed .    .  36 
Seed     Beds,     Good     Ones     not 

Disappointed ( 28 

Seed  Corn  Room \ 90 

Sheep's  Fescue 214 

Shocking  Corn 124 


Page 

Silage,  Crops  for 78 

Silage,  Feeding  Silage 78 

Silo,  Calculating  Size 71 

Silo,  Filling  the 71 

Silos    75 

Silos,  Capacity  of 77 

Soiling,  Advantages  of 82 

Soiling  Crops 75,     79 

Soiling,   Objections  to 83 

Soiling  in  Place  of  Pasture 81 

Soil  Packing  to  Start  Water 28 

Sorghum 214 

Sowing  Grass  Seed 22 

Soy  Beans 219 

Spelt 221 

Spurry    222 

Succulent  Crops 63 

Sugar   Beet 224 

Sugar  Cane 228 

Sunflower 230 

Sweet  Clover 232 

Sweet    Potato 233 

Tall  Fescue 236 

Tall  Oat  Grass 237 

Teosinte   238 

Tillage  and  Fertilizers 6 

Timothy 239 

Tobacco   242 

Turnips 69,  247 

Velvet  Bean 249 

Velvet  Grass 250 

Vetches 251 

Water  Saving 25 

Wheat 253 

Wheat  following  Corn 33 

Wheat,  Ideal  Seed  Bed  for 260 

Wheat,  Preparing  for 259 

Wheat,  Varieties  of 258 

White   Clover 268 

Yellow  Clover 269 


LD  2lA-60w-7,'66 
(G4427slO)476B 


Yb  46267 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRAK  Y 


